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Wyświetlanie 1-15 z 68
Tytuł:
Typy i charakter działań wojennych Cesarstwa Chińskiego
Military operations of the Chinese Empire: their types and characteristics
Autorzy:
Gawlikowski, Krzysztof
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/1992216.pdf
Data publikacji:
2016-12-31
Wydawca:
Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek
Opis:
Wars waged by the Chinese Empire, or civil wars within it, differ significantly from those waged in Europe, owing to differences in the sphere of ideology, predominantly Confucian, and historical realities. There are also cultural differences related to the prevailing attitudes to war, struggle and the use of force. The study presents several of them. Rebellion against a “morally discredited” dynasty, which already lost her “Mandate of Heaven” (to re-establish moral order in China and in the world). Re-establishment of “order in the world” by China as the leading Middle State. “Punishment of usurpers” carried out during the division of the Empire (since there could be merely one legitimate Son of Heaven, all other rulers, who pretended to be independent Sons of Heaven, were considered “usurpers”). Civil wars: “legitimate rebellion against discredited power holders” and “re-establishment of order” on the side of the state authorities. Invasions by the Empire to conquer new lands or enlarge the sphere of its influence (most often to subdue neighbouring states and reduce their status to a vassal country) The author briefly outlines the “borderlands”, which the Empire wanted to control when it was strong. He also analyses the social, economic and ideological reasons, why in the Empire prevailed isolationist policy and the expansion was carried out merely on a limited scale, mostly to the neighbouring states and lands.
Źródło:
Azja-Pacyfik; 2016, XIX; 11-41
1643-692X
Pojawia się w:
Azja-Pacyfik
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Zmiany stosunku do Mao Zedonga w Chinach współczesnych i jego kult religijny
Changing attitudes towards Mao Zedong in the PRC and his religious cults
Autorzy:
Gawlikowski, Krzysztof
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/2010991.pdf
Data publikacji:
2015-12-31
Wydawca:
Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek
Opis:
The paper outlines changing attitudes towards Mao since 1976 up to 2015, as an important part of political and ideological transformations in the PRC. The study is based on the author’s personal talks with numerous Chinese of different social standing during these years. Some essential party documents, interesting research by other scholars and internet sources have been employed here as well. The point of departure constitutes a comparison of Mao and Stalin and their political and social roles respectively in the PRC and in the Soviet Union. The author puts an emphasis on cultural differences between the two societies. The author points out that the political and ideological cult of Mao as a Great Helmsman and Great Teacher started to fade away before his death (September 9, 1976). The turning point constituted the death of Zhou Enlai in January 1976. Then, during mass celebrations commemorating him at the Tiananmen Square, Maoist “revolutionary” policy had been criticised in public for the first time and the new myth of the Prime Minister as “great patriot taking care of the state and of the people” was born. The new nationalistic spirit was manifested in opposition to “internationally minded” revolutionary policy, which caused suffering of the Chinese people. Immediately after the funeral of Mao, in the beginning of October, the radical Maoists, who predominated at that time, were arrested in a particular coup d’etat, and the so-called Gang of Four lost power. The moderate Maoists, who ruled the country, tried to preserve the cult of Mao, but within the ruling elite and the society critical attitudes to the Maoist policy were on the rise. It was combined with increasing nationalism and the cult of Zhou at the grass root level. In 1978, a new period started; both the people and the cadres on the grass root level initiated reforms, even those dismantling of the Maoist system (including the people’s communes at the countryside). The “walls of democracy” appeared in the cities, and the critical evaluation of the past concerned the Maoist heritage. The new leaders including Deng Xiaoping led a “silent de-maoisation”: the destruction of Mao monuments, his quotations in public places, etc. Moreover, they presented Mao as a great politician, who committed serious mistakes, and whose heritage could be analysed and criticised under the heading “Mao was a man not a god”. On the other hand, they struggled against “excessive criticism” towards Mao as harmful to the state and destabilising the society. At the end of the 1980s, new tendencies started to appear. The new market economy already changed life of the ordinary Chinese. On the one hand, new super-rich, and on the other the “new poor” appeared side by side with sharp economic differences between cities, villages, and regions. The new “money first” mentality prevailed, whereas moral values and human attitudes faded away. Under the new system of “wild capitalism”, the interest in the Maoist heritage could be seen among the older people and youngsters as well in opposition to the new official “market and motherland” ideology. Mao at this stage had been imagined first of all as a great “national leader”. The paper also analyses the evolution of Mao Zedong Mausoleum towards an “Ancestral Hall of Revolution”. The author analyses various religious and mystical aspects of the cults of Mao in the framework of the “folk religion”, starting with his veneration as a God of Safe Travel up to the Tutelary God Granting Prosperity to the Nation and Tranquillity to the People. Chinese authorities have to take under consideration such phenomena and adapt their policies to new social expectations. In this field, one could see the fundamental contradiction between the ruling elite educated in the tradition of the Western Enlightenment and the Chinese people much more bounded by their civilisation.
Źródło:
Azja-Pacyfik; 2015, XVIII; 9-66
1643-692X
Pojawia się w:
Azja-Pacyfik
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Azja Południowo-Wschodnia jako region historyczno-kulturowy (I)
Southeast Asia as a regional community – its historical and cultural characteristics (part I)
Autorzy:
Gawlikowski, Krzysztof
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/2028944.pdf
Data publikacji:
2002-12-31
Wydawca:
Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek
Opis:
The author outlines the principal geographical and climatic features of the region and against this background he indicates its cultural characteristics. High differentiation constitutes its main feature. During the last two millennia the local cultures and states have been shaped by all major civilisations: Chinese (Vietnam and some ethnic groups on the mainland), Indian (Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Champa, island empires), Islamic (Malay Peninsula and the islands), the Western (in its Spanish, French, British, Dutch, Portuguese and American versions). There were present all colonial European powers, and in addition to them the USA and Japan. One may also find there all major world religions. Two countries are in practice Catholic (Philippines and East Timor), whereas in Vietnam Catholic presence is very strong. In both respects, cultural and religious, the native heritage also remains vivid. One of the particular features of the region is the division into two “worlds”: of the mountains/hills and of the lowlands/valleys/deltas. In the symbolic sphere the first was identified with fi re, whereas the second with water (or with birds and dragons/snakes). The presence of water was also a real phenomenon of a great significance: it determined the style of life, production of food, types of houses and of dress, even customs and mentality. Mountains offered entirely different conditions that determined another style of life. The relations between societies of “water” and of “mountains” were very complex: determined by mutual fears and attraction; they could consider themselves “brothers”, and fight one with another. Their separation, notwithstanding various bounds, is remarkable. Hills played an important role in local religious life and in images of political power (the figure of the Mountain-King, lingas, stupas, etc.). Enormous ethnic and linguistic differentiation was related to various types of production practised there side by side. One can find there food gatherers, primitiveshifting and sedentary cultivators (now new industrial and post-industrial sectors have been added). Each of these essential economies determined density of population per square km, types of social organisation, and the level of “openness” of individual cultures and their capacity to absorb alien groups. Thus we find there national or semi-national communities numbering millions, ethnic groups that could be counted by thousands, and other counted by dozens. Particular geographic conditions allowed them to co-exist in separation, although sometimes at a close distance. This resulted in a particular mosaic of languages divided into several major groups, although the borders of the region in this respect, to the north and to the west are unclear. Therefore, on the one hand, we find there enormous differentiation of individual groups and almost extreme isolation of many of them, and on the other – an exceptional range of inter-regional trade and communication by the sea (involving the coast and islands). One could even state that the Southeast Asia was a pioneer of globalisation and of pluralistic societies.
Źródło:
Azja-Pacyfik; 2002, V; 9-32
1643-692X
Pojawia się w:
Azja-Pacyfik
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Cechy szczególne Rewolucji Xinhai i jej paradoksy
Particular Character of the Xinhai Revolution and its Paradoxes
Autorzy:
Gawlikowski, Krzysztof
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/2022378.pdf
Data publikacji:
2011-12-31
Wydawca:
Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek
Opis:
The Xinhai Revolution of 1911 constitutes a turning point in Chinese history: it put an end to the native imperial system, and introduced to China a Western republican system instead, together with the new Han-Chinese nationalism (also inspired by the West). Unfortunately, the experiment of an accelerated westernization failed, as it happened in post-colonial Africa and in numerous post-Soviet republics. The state collapsed and China suffered from chaos, poverty, and even more brutal oppression by foreign powers. The successful re-building of the state had been initiated only in 1949 under the Communist regime. The new political course initiated in 1978 was to some extent close to that outlined by Sun Yat-sen: national solidarity was propagated instead of class struggle and economic development of China instead of the “world revolution”. National aims, including unification of all Chinese territories, have been adopted, and accelerated westernization was combined with a return to some national traditions. The great emphasis was put on building up new modern infrastructure and borrowing modern science and technology from the West, whereas Western political ideas were treated with suspicion. One could also notice some Sun Yat-sen’s influences in the contemporary Chinese foreign policy. The author compares the Xinhai Revolution with the French Revolution referring to some of R. Bin Wong’s concepts, but he also adds other differences. He indicates that instead of „the right versus the left cleavage”, the main controversy in China concerned the attitude towards native heritage and westernization. He also analyses the transformation of traditional identities and the evolution of a new nationalism.
Źródło:
Azja-Pacyfik; 2011, XIV; 31-48
1643-692X
Pojawia się w:
Azja-Pacyfik
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Religijność wietnamska: tradycyjny kult duchów opiekuńczych wspólnoty wiejskiej a państwo
Vietnamese religiosity: the traditional cult of tutelary spirits in village communes and the state
Autorzy:
Gawlikowski, Krzysztof
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/2023442.pdf
Data publikacji:
2009-12-31
Wydawca:
Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek
Opis:
The author indicates the present renaissance of all the forms of religiosity after the doi moi reforms, indigenous and of foreign origins. The study is based on the author’s field work in Vietnam at the end of the 1970’s and his analysis of the “temple books” collected by the colonial French authorities. The authors compares this Vietnamese material with Chinese cults and religious practices, and – on the other hand – briefly outlines the present situation of religious cults with the “socialist” period and in detail analyses their state on the village level in the last centuries of the monarchy. As the principal forms of the Vietnamese religiosity the author outlines the following cults and rites: 1) The “Three Teachings” – Confucianism, Taoism and Zen Buddhism; 2) Sino-Vietnamese cults – adapted from China (as the Chinese cult of Mazu, of the Prince Guan, Xuan Wu, etc.); 3) The Vietnamese cults of saints (thanh), in particular of the “national heroes” (anh hung), worshipped in the dinh temple; 4) Cults of the local tutelary spirits (most of the village cults belongs to this category) also worshipped in dinh; 5) The cult of the ancestors; 6) The state cults celebrated by the ruler; 7) Beliefs and practices related to the mysterious forces – benevolent or malignant (such as astrology, geomancy, oracles, the use of amulets, etc. In addition the author indicates that these cults and rites involves first of all various communities, not individuals as in the West, and instead western priests the rites are usually performed by the heads or representatives of the communities: of the family, of the community or of the state. One can find there the anthropocentric not the western theocentric orientation (this is common to all the countries of the Confucian-Buddhist civilization). Moreover, the orthopraxy not the western orthodoxy prevails in Vietnam as in the region, hence religious rites and practices are essential there, not beliefs, so important in the West. The rites serve first of all to preserving/restoring order and harmony in the family, in the village or in the region/the state. Therefore the deep religiosity is usually missing and the rites have mainly social functions. The author describes the traditional Vietnamese village commune as a semiautonomous village-state (with its own complex bureaucracy) that could be compared with the Mediterranean city-states. Hence, following the Vietnamese historians, the author characterizes the Vietnamese monarchy as a kind of federation of such village communes. In this respect Vietnam differs significantly from the Chinese Empire, where the state was much stronger. Village communes constituted the fundamental entity of the political and social order in the Vietnamese monarchy and these traditions influenced political culture in Vietnam. The author presents the village communes’ tutelary spirits – thanh huang: their types, character, ranks and functions. He indicates that this deity corresponds to the Chinese “tutelary deity of a city” – cheng huang, and indicates all together 14 types of such Vietnamese deities (with numerous examples). The author indicates the difficulties related to such surveys in the field and in archives, first of all related to the “temple taboo” (hen) and its relation to the state policy. The strengthening of the state in the 2nd millennium involved increasing control of the village cults and the resistance of the local communities, which protected their original cults with taboo and other measures. In this way the old cults that contradicted the newly propagated Confucian values and norms often could be preserved. The author outlines the complex interrelations of the village communes and the state in the last centuries of the Vietnamese monarchy in detail with references to various examples of villages and their correspondence with the Ministry of Rites. He concludes that a significant autonomy of village communes was preserved until the end of the independent Vietnamese monarchy in the religious aspect, which was certainly essential to the Confucian type of state.
Źródło:
Azja-Pacyfik; 2009, XII; 138-171
1643-692X
Pojawia się w:
Azja-Pacyfik
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Wyświetlanie 1-15 z 68

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