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Wyszukujesz frazę "turbocharger" wg kryterium: Temat


Tytuł:
Analysis of technological process of installation turbochargers
Autorzy:
Cygnar, M.
Mazurków, A.
Jaskólski, J.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/244108.pdf
Data publikacji:
2008
Wydawca:
Instytut Techniczny Wojsk Lotniczych
Tematy:
turbocharger
installation of turbocharger's group
turbine's rotor
compressor's rotor
Opis:
The technological process of installation of turbocharger as well as detailed analysis of chosen stages of installation having fundamental influence on the correct work of the turbocharger are presented in the article. The purpose of this article is performance of whole process of installation turbocharger as well as analysis of particularly significant stages of this process. The creature of turbocharging and it is myself this of working of turbocharger is enough simple. Difficulties appear if we put to the analysis conditions work of turbocharger: high temperature offumes, variable loads, aggressive environment of combustion gases, high rotatory speeds of rotors. Some of exploitation problems are possible to the elimination on the design stage or by means of application of appropriate materials. However technological process of installation is responsible for output quality and failure-free lasting work of turbocharger. In the process of installation it can distinguish some essential stages: processing and installation of shaft with the turbine's rotor, the weighing of turbine's rotor and the compressor, the installation of rotor's group, weighing of rotor's group in the trunk, positional tests under load. High rotary speeds cause during work of rotator so that created during of installation of turbocharger inappropriate balancing can bring to important damages of turbocharger. The correct course of process of installation and the final verification on braked position allows to avoid most of breakdowns of turbocharger group as well as to ensure long term of correct exploitation.From this reason very important is detailed analysis of respective stages of installation of group.
Źródło:
Journal of KONES; 2008, 15, 2; 35-39
1231-4005
2354-0133
Pojawia się w:
Journal of KONES
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
The study on the effects of different opening ranges of waste-gate on improving the work parameters of spark ignition engine
Autorzy:
Filipczyk, J.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/243943.pdf
Data publikacji:
2010
Wydawca:
Instytut Techniczny Wojsk Lotniczych
Tematy:
spark ignition engine
turbocharger
Opis:
The experimental study was conducted to investigate the effects of different opening ranges of waste gate of a turbocharged medium displacement spark ignition engine on improving work parameters such as exhaust emission, torque characteristics and fuel consumption. The object of the experimental tests was an engine with modified intake and exhaust manifolds. The intake and exhaust manifold modification included only implementation of turbocharger with the variable geometry turbine. The values of boost pressure were controlled by the system with waste gate valves with a changeable characteristic and a control valve. Work parameters of waste-gate valves have been selected experimentally. Boost pressure had to be reduced to 1.3 and to 1.5 bar in the range of medium values of throttle opening. The system with waste-gate allowed to increase significantly the torque value at low engine speed range as well as to reduce the boost pressure at high engine speed range for throttle opening values above 50%. In total range engine work, emission of particular exhaust gas components did not exceed the values of the emission suitable for normally aspirated engine. It provided the stable engine 's running in all conditions including variable engine speed and in the whole range of throttle opening angle with restricted fuel consumption. The application of changeable characteristics in the waste gate valve which reduces the charging pressure by controlling characteristics variable of the valve depending on the engine work parameters was controlled by electronic system. The controlled system allows improving parameters of engine performance in wide range of engine's rotation speed.
Źródło:
Journal of KONES; 2010, 17, 3; 93-98
1231-4005
2354-0133
Pojawia się w:
Journal of KONES
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
An analysis of cause and effect relations in diagnostic relations of marine Diesel engine turbochargers
Autorzy:
Adamkiewicz, A.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/359843.pdf
Data publikacji:
2012
Wydawca:
Akademia Morska w Szczecinie. Wydawnictwo AMSz
Tematy:
diagnostic relations
turbocharger
Diesel engines
Opis:
The article justifies the need to analyse diagnostic relations for turbocharger operation purposes. Types of turbochargers most frequently used in modern marine engines have been presented. Turbocharger decomposition has been conducted on a selected example. The influence of typical inefficiencies in respect to symptom value changes has been worked out for each heat engine and sub-system. Validation of selected cause and effect relations has been based on operational experience in the technical scale.
Źródło:
Zeszyty Naukowe Akademii Morskiej w Szczecinie; 2012, 31 (103); 5-13
1733-8670
2392-0378
Pojawia się w:
Zeszyty Naukowe Akademii Morskiej w Szczecinie
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Vibro-acoustic methods in marine diesel engines diagnostics
Autorzy:
Lus, T.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/245521.pdf
Data publikacji:
2011
Wydawca:
Instytut Techniczny Wojsk Lotniczych
Tematy:
marine diesel engine
turbocharger
diagnostics
vibration
Opis:
Vibro-acoustic diagnostic methods which are used on marine high-speed diesel engines with turbochargers are presented in this paper. Vibration and acoustic signals generated by turbochargers need different signal processing methods to be effective and faultless in turbochargers diagnostics. Diagnostic methods which based on vibration and acoustic signals analysis are sensitive on engine load and speed changes. Methods presented in this paper based on vibration and acoustic signals processing in time and frequency domain. Using this methods checking technical condition of the turbochargers and its rotors and bearings without stopping the engine and dismantling it is possible. Examples of radial-flow rotor turbine overgrown by carbon soot and axial-flow rotor turbine without turbine blades, sound intensity level of turbocharger and acoustic spectrum of turbocharger in octave mode acoustic spectrum of turbocharger in octave mode for two different technical conditions, acoustic and vibration signal spectrum of the turbocharger, vibration acceleration amplitude of first harmonic for three turbochargers, values of harmonic vibrations of accelerations equivalent of turbine blades number, amplitude of vibrations accelerations in frequency domain for turbocharger in good and bad technical conditions are presented in the paper.
Źródło:
Journal of KONES; 2011, 18, 3; 203-210
1231-4005
2354-0133
Pojawia się w:
Journal of KONES
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Analiza przyczyn uszkodzeń turbosprężarek samochodowych
Analysis of causes damage to the turbochargers
Autorzy:
Lotko, Wincenty
Longwic, Rafał
Górski, Krzysztof
Sander, Przemysław
Durczak, Tomasz
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/250869.pdf
Data publikacji:
2015
Wydawca:
Instytut Naukowo-Wydawniczy TTS
Tematy:
turbosprężarka
awaria
samochód
turbocharger
accident
car
Opis:
W artykule przedstawiono analizę przyczyn uszkodzeń turbosprężarek samochodowych. Opisano i omówiono najczęściej występujące w eksploatacji uszkodzenia turbosprężarek. Bazowano na danych zebranych z praktyki reklamacyjnej i szkoleniowej wiodącej na rynku firmy zajmującej się regeneracją turbosprężarek.
The article presents an analysis of the causes of damage to automotive turbochargers. Described and discussed the most common in use damage to the turbocharger. It was based on data collected from practice complaint and training market leading regenerator turbochargers.
Źródło:
TTS Technika Transportu Szynowego; 2015, 12; 1833-1836, CD
1232-3829
2543-5728
Pojawia się w:
TTS Technika Transportu Szynowego
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Reliability Assessment of Main Engine Subsystems Considering Turbocharger Failure as a Case Study
Autorzy:
Anantharaman, M.
Khan, F.
Garaniya, V.
Lewarn, B.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/116356.pdf
Data publikacji:
2018
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Morski w Gdyni. Wydział Nawigacyjny
Tematy:
main engine
main propulsion
turbocharger
turbocharger failure
main propulsion engine
Markov model
Weibull failur model
reliability
Opis:
Safe operation of a merchant vessel is dependent on the reliability of the vessel’s main propulsion engine. Reliability of the main propulsion engine is interdependent on the reliability of several subsystems including lubricating oil system, fuel oil system, cooling water system and scavenge air system. Turbochargers form part of the scavenge sub system and play a vital role in the operation of the main engine. Failure of turbochargers can lead to disastrous consequences and immobilisation of the main engine. Hence due consideration need to be given to the reliability assessment of the scavenge system while assessing the reliability of the main engine. This paper presents integration of Markov model (for constant failure components) and Weibull failure model (for wearing out components) to estimate the reliability of the main propulsion engine. This integrated model will provide more realistic and practical analysis. It will serve as a useful tool to estimate the reliability of the vessel’s main propulsion engine and make efficient and effective maintenance decisions. A case study of turbocharger failure and its impact on the main engine is also discussed.
Źródło:
TransNav : International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation; 2018, 12, 2; 271-276
2083-6473
2083-6481
Pojawia się w:
TransNav : International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Charging system of spark ignition engine with two turbochargers
Autorzy:
Sendyka, B.
Filipczyk, J.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/243862.pdf
Data publikacji:
2008
Wydawca:
Instytut Techniczny Wojsk Lotniczych
Tematy:
spark ignition engine
charging system
turbocharger
Opis:
The purpose of the investigation was the application of two turbochargers system in spark ignition engine and determining turbochargers' work parameters depending on throttle opening and engine's rotation speed. System with small turbocharger and larger variable geometry turbocharger in parallel connection (three-stage turbocharging) was examined. The engine used during the investigation was 1300 cm displacement SI engine with modified intake and exhaust manifolds. Intake and exhaust manifold modification including only implementation of turbochargers and sensors was done for experimental purposes. Specific values of maximum boost pressure were obtained by introducing a waste gate valve system with appropriate characteristic. Proper choice concerning work parameters of the charging system allows to improve torque characteristic in wide range of engine's rotation speed. The system with additional small turbocharger allowed to increase torque value in low engine's speed range as well as to increase boost pressure in high engine's speed range for throttle opening angle values above 50 %. In medium engine's speed range the best results were given by variable geometry turbocharger. The two turbochargers system and values of maximum boost pressure were controlled by the system with two waste gate valves. Improving total efficiency was obtained in medium engine's speed range. The application of two turbochargers system as modification of naturally aspirated spark ignition engine allows to improve torque flexibility rate. There is a possibility to apply the charging system with two turbochargers, with boost pressure control system, in already existing, naturally aspirated engine without decreasing compression ratio and modifying engine's control system.
Źródło:
Journal of KONES; 2008, 15, 2; 433-440
1231-4005
2354-0133
Pojawia się w:
Journal of KONES
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Evaluation of the possibility of occurrence of selected damage to a car engine turbocharger using the event tree analysis (ETA)
Autorzy:
Bor, M.
Karpiuk, W.
Smolec, R.
Spadło, M.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/241572.pdf
Data publikacji:
2018
Wydawca:
Instytut Techniczny Wojsk Lotniczych
Tematy:
turbocharger
combustion engines
Event Tree Analysis
ETA
Opis:
The subject of the article is the identification of factors behind the incorrect operation of a car turbocharger that, in longer perspective, lead to the damage of the device. Due to the operating principle and design features, the device works with many engine systems – intake, exhaust, lubrication systems and also, increasingly more often, with the cooling system. A multitude of relations, complexity, and working conditions are reasons due to which the device is sensitive to disturbances of quality parameters of the working media (e.g. oil). In the article based on the selected causes of damage of turbochargers, we focused on the following initiating event, concerning the bearings lubrication system, which is clogged oil strainer. The authors aims at performing an analysis allowing to increase the detectability of emerging malfunctions that lead to deterioration of operating conditions of the device. For this task tool such as ETA (Event Tree Analysis) was used. It is a tool for assessing system and process safety. It facilitates detecting potential risks, as well as relations existing between actions or events. This method explores the path from the initiating event to the outcome (most often representing the immobilization of the tested object), with particular emphasis on intermediate stages affecting the technical condition of the object. Unlike the FTA analyses, which have a deductive nature, the ETA analysis is inductive. The analysis of the obtained results, supported with validation by means of ETA, allowed proving that, given the current state of knowledge and advancements in technology, it is possible to apply additional sensors for monitoring the operation of a turbocharger. The proposed modifications were considered minor design changes that significantly increase the reliability of the device.
Źródło:
Journal of KONES; 2018, 25, 3; 71-76
1231-4005
2354-0133
Pojawia się w:
Journal of KONES
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
The Use of Plastic Working Alloys Feal to Perform Controls Elements of Turbocharger in Diesel Engine
Autorzy:
Cebulski, J.
Pasek, D.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/352436.pdf
Data publikacji:
2018
Wydawca:
Polska Akademia Nauk. Czytelnia Czasopism PAN
Tematy:
FeAl
turbocharger
intermetallic alloys
heat resistance
material structure
Opis:
Operating conditions turbocharger (high temperature and corrosive environment) mean that the device is classified into one of the most elements of the emergency drive unit of the car. The failure rate can be reduced through the use of modern heat-resistant materials, which include based alloys FeAl intermetallic phase. Intermetallic alloys belong to the group of materials known as prospective due to their advantageous properties, in particular their high specific strength, high melting point and good resistance to corrosion and oxidation at high temperatures. In the article presented results of the research axis roll control system variable geometry blades made of intermetallic alloy Fe40Al5Cr0,2TiB as a substitute so far made of austenitic steel. A verification service conditions, comparing the degradation of the material previously used by manufacturers of turbochargers for elements of the control system degradation axes made of intermetallic alloy Fe40Al5Cr0,2TiB. The study consisted of determining microstructure and corrosion products after use. Observations of the structure and the surface of the corrosion tests were performed using light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and X-ray microanalysis EDS chemical composition.
Źródło:
Archives of Metallurgy and Materials; 2018, 63, 3; 1423-1427
1733-3490
Pojawia się w:
Archives of Metallurgy and Materials
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Ocena możliwości prawidłowego kształtowania współpracy silnika trakcyjnego z turbosprężarkami pracującymi w układzie doładowania zakresowego
Possibilities assessment of the proper shaping of car engine cooperation with turbochargers working in the sequential supercharging system
Autorzy:
Danilecki, K.
Bielecki, A.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/313829.pdf
Data publikacji:
2014
Wydawca:
Instytut Naukowo-Wydawniczy "SPATIUM"
Tematy:
turbosprężarka
doładowanie zakresowe
modelowanie
turbocharger
sequential turbocharging
modelling
Opis:
W artykule sformułowano wymagania dotyczące najbardziej korzystnego podziału pracy sprężania w turbosprężarkach podczas doboru ich parametrów konstrukcyjnych w celu uzyskania oczekiwanego ukształtowania krzywej maksymalnego momentu obrotowego na charakterystyce zewnętrznej silnika.
This paper presents the requirements concerning the most beneficial division of the compression work in turbochargers at the selection of their design parameters in order to obtain the desired shape of the maximum torque curve on the external characteristics of the engine.
Źródło:
Autobusy : technika, eksploatacja, systemy transportowe; 2014, 15, 6; 95-99
1509-5878
2450-7725
Pojawia się w:
Autobusy : technika, eksploatacja, systemy transportowe
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Studies on the influence of rotor unit unbalance on the operational parameters of a turbocharger of the NAPIER C-045 type
Autorzy:
Adamkiewicz, A.
Kuropatnicki, M.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/360167.pdf
Data publikacji:
2013
Wydawca:
Akademia Morska w Szczecinie. Wydawnictwo AMSz
Tematy:
turbocharger
rotor unit
unbalance
operational parameters
technical conditions
Opis:
This paper presents the results of studies on the influence of unbalance of the rotor unit of a turbocharger on its operational parameters. Identification of the study object, a turbocharger of the NAPIER C-045 type, has been performed. The experiment was carried out at a test stand identifying turbocharger operational parameters belonging to the rotor unit unbalance group. Basing on the measured values and using a mathematical model, hypothetical values of operational parameters for different loads of Diesel engines were calculated. The obtained experimental results were compared to the calculated ones. On this basis, the studied turbochargers were classified into one out of three categories describing operational utility class of a given turbocharger. The order of sensitivity of turbocharger operational parameters to the unbalance of the rotor unit was established.
Źródło:
Zeszyty Naukowe Akademii Morskiej w Szczecinie; 2013, 34 (106); 12-18
1733-8670
2392-0378
Pojawia się w:
Zeszyty Naukowe Akademii Morskiej w Szczecinie
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
The research of rotating sets in turbochargers, the influence of relative width of sliding bearings with a floating ring on static and dynamic properties
Autorzy:
Cygnar, M.
Aleksander, M.
Mazurkow, A.
Budzik, G.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/242325.pdf
Data publikacji:
2009
Wydawca:
Instytut Techniczny Wojsk Lotniczych
Tematy:
turbocharger
rotating unit
sliding bearing with a floatin
Opis:
This work is the continuation of the research concerning the dynamic model of a rotating set in turbocharger. In this model masses of rotors and a shaft have been modelled as concentrated masses. The rotating set has been propped on two supports forming lateral sliding bearings with a floating ring bearing. Each bearing is designed including floating ring bearing mass. The shaft of a rotating set spins at angular velocity omega 1 whereas a floating ring bearing spins at angular speed omega 2. A mathematical model constitutes a system of differential equations, mutually coupled. The mathematical model has been solved by determining: acceleration, velocity and displacement in each knot. The paper shows the crucial influence of a bearing relative clearance on static and dynamic properties of a rotating set in a turbocharger. The authors suggest that the rotating set works stably only in these cases as for given parameters, we choose properly oil films' geometry. In the conclusion, the authors formulate proposal that might be usefulfor the designers who deal with these types of bearings. Especially, the mathematical model o f a turbocharger rotating set, work parameters of bearing knots, researches of static and dynamic properties are presented in the paper.
Źródło:
Journal of KONES; 2009, 16, 2; 91-96
1231-4005
2354-0133
Pojawia się w:
Journal of KONES
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
A concept of a turbocharger test stand
Koncepcja stanowiska do badania turbosprężarek silników spalinowych
Autorzy:
Idzior, M.
Karpiuk, W.
Bieliński, M.
Borowczyk, T.
Daszkiewicz, P.
Stobnicki, P.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/133278.pdf
Data publikacji:
2014
Wydawca:
Polskie Towarzystwo Naukowe Silników Spalinowych
Tematy:
turbocharger
engine operation
test stand
turbosprężarka
eksploatacja
stanowisko badawcze
Opis:
The paper presents selected possibilities of vehicle turbocharger testing using an exhaust gas generator (based on a passenger vehicle) designed in the laboratory on the engine test bed. An outline of the range of turbocharger testing, the design and main characteristics of the test stand have been described. Several validation tests have been presented in terms of the technical parameters, operativeness, and functionality. Basic parameters of the engine have been analyzed that have impact on the turbocharger speed.
W artykule przedstawiono wybrane możliwości badania turbosprężarek układu doładowania samochodowego silnika spalinowego z wykorzystaniem wytwornicy spalin opartej na silniku spalinowym samochodu osobowego, zbudowanej na hamowni silnikowej laboratorium. Omówiono w zarysie zakres badań turbosprężarek, zaprezentowano budowę stanowiska oraz przedstawiono jego główne cechy charakterystyczne. Przedstawiono kilka testów sprawdzających możliwości techniczne, przydatność oraz poprawność funkcjonowania układu zasilnia turbosprężarki. Dokonano analizy podstawowych parametrów silnika mających bezpośredni wpływ na prędkości obrotowe wału turbosprężarki.
Źródło:
Combustion Engines; 2014, 53, 1; 30-40
2300-9896
2658-1442
Pojawia się w:
Combustion Engines
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Marine diesel engine diagnostics in operating conditions
Diagnostyka okrętowych silników tłokowych w warunkach eksploatacji
Autorzy:
Lus, T.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/329534.pdf
Data publikacji:
2012
Wydawca:
Polska Akademia Nauk. Polskie Towarzystwo Diagnostyki Technicznej PAN
Tematy:
silnik okrętowy wysokoprężny
diagnostyka
turbosprężarka
marine diesel engine
diagnostics
turbocharger
Opis:
Most of marine diesel engines are turbocharged. Conventional maintenance methods for engine turbochargers depend on bearings clearances checks between rotor shaft and bearing housing. Some parts of the turbocharger have to be checked on the special stands or by using endoscopic methods. Fuel oil not burnt to the end and severe engine working conditions (long time idling) led to several typical turbocharger malfunctions and damages of it in some cases. Always it is easier to prevent malfunctions than take repair works on any assets. In the paper results of main and auxiliary ship's diesel engines turbochargers diagnostic investigations are presented. Methods presented in the paper based on vibration signals processing in time and frequency domain. Using these methods for checking technical condition of the turbochargers and its rotors and bearings without stopping the engine and dismantling it is possible.
Większość silników okrętowych jest budowana, jako silniki doładowane turbosprężarką. Konwencjonalne metody diagnozowania turbosprężarek polegają na sprawdzaniu luzów łożyskowych pomiędzy wałem a tulejami łożysk. Niektóre części turbosprężarki muszą być sprawdzane na specjalnych stanowiska lub z wykorzystaniem metod endoskopowych. Niespalone do końca paliwo i ciężkie warunki pracy silnika (długotrwała praca na biegu luzem) prowadzą do występowania kilku typowych niesprawności a w niektórych okolicznościach uszkodzeń turbosprężarek. Zawsze jest łatwiej zapobiegać uszkodzeniom niż dokonywać napraw urządzeń. W artykule przedstawiono wyniki badań diagnostycznych turbosprężarek silników głównych i pomocniczych na okręcie. Metody prezentowane w referacie bazują na przetwarzaniu sygnałów drganiowych w dziedzinie czasu i częstotliwości. Stosowanie tych metod umożliwia ocenę stanu technicznego turbosprężarek wraz z ich wirnikami i łożyskami bez ich demontażu i zatrzymywania silnika.
Źródło:
Diagnostyka; 2012, 2(62); 43-47
1641-6414
2449-5220
Pojawia się w:
Diagnostyka
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Stanowisko badawcze do pomiarów wybranych parametrów eksploatacyjnych turbosprężarki silnika spalinowego
The research station for measurement of selected exploitation parameters of a turbocharger
Autorzy:
Gustof, P.
Hornik, A.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/312930.pdf
Data publikacji:
2016
Wydawca:
Instytut Naukowo-Wydawniczy "SPATIUM"
Tematy:
turbosprężarka
silnik spalinowy
diagnostyka eksploatacyjna
turbocharger
combustion engine
operational exploitation
Opis:
W artykule omówione zostało stanowisko badawcze do wykonywania pomiarów eksploatacyjnych turbosprężarki zamontowanej w samochodzie marki Fiat Croma z silnikiem 1,9 TD. Stanowisko umożliwiać będzie m.in. pomiar ciśnienia i temperatury oleju silnikowego dla wybranych stanów jego pracy.
The article has been discussed a research station which was made to measure of exploitation parameters of a turbocharger mounted in the car Fiat Croma with an engine 1,9 TD. The station will allow, among others, at the measure the pressure and temperature of the engine oil with the selected conditions of its work.
Źródło:
Autobusy : technika, eksploatacja, systemy transportowe; 2016, 17, 12; 975-978
1509-5878
2450-7725
Pojawia się w:
Autobusy : technika, eksploatacja, systemy transportowe
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł

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