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Tytuł:
Hydraulic Stability of Fly Ash-Bentonite Mixtures in Landfill Containment System
Autorzy:
Budihardjo, Mochamad Arief
Syafrudin, Syafrudin
Priyambada, Ika Bagus
Ramadan, Bimastyaji Surya
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/1955399.pdf
Data publikacji:
2021
Wydawca:
Polskie Towarzystwo Inżynierii Ekologicznej
Tematy:
stabilization
containment system
bentonite
fly ash
permeability
Opis:
This study aimed to examine the performance of fly ash mixed materials with bentonite binder (FAB) as a recent low-cost containment system to withstand leachate infiltration. The mixture of fly ash with clay (bentonite) can increase the strength of stability and strengthen cohesion bonds between molecules. Direct shear, falling head, Atterberg limit and specific gravity test have been conducted as a preliminary study to determine the precise mixture composition of fly ash-bentonite (FAB) landfill liners. Some bentonite composition: 0% (FAB0), 15% (FAB15), 20% (FAB20), 25% (FAB25) and 25% – cured with NH4Cl (FAB25s) for 24 hours, which mixed with fly ash, showed the value of shear stability at normal stress reaching 9.5 kNm-2, 15.48 kNm-2, 45.06 kNm-2, 46.26 kNm-2 and 13.67 kNm-2, respectively. It showed that the greater the content of bentonite in the mixture, the higher the shear stress produced. Curing with saline solution can reduce the shear stress of the FAB mixture. The safety test results using Geoslope/W® show that the addition of bentonite will increase bonding between particles, bearing capacity, and shear strength of the material. The largest safety factor of 1.674 obtained from FAB20 material meets the safety standard for short-term slope stability. The use of fly ash material with bentonite is expected to be an alternative landfill liner material.
Źródło:
Journal of Ecological Engineering; 2021, 22, 7; 132-141
2299-8993
Pojawia się w:
Journal of Ecological Engineering
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Frequencies assessment of loss containment including the effects of measures of risk prevention and mitigation
Autorzy:
Milazzo, M. F.
Maschio, G.
Uguccioni, G.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/2069706.pdf
Data publikacji:
2008
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Morski w Gdyni. Polskie Towarzystwo Bezpieczeństwa i Niezawodności
Tematy:
frequency
piping
risk assessment
loss containment
failure cause
Opis:
The question of how the effects of management and organisational variables can be incorporated into assessment of frequency of loss containment events is currently of considerable interest. Usually these typology of events arises from an uncontrolled accidental phenomena or a combination of active and latent human errors in areas such as design, operations and maintenance. In the 2006 a development of a methodology for the quantification of the effects of measures of risk prevention or mitigation on the frequencies of rupture of pipework has been presented, the approach is based on the methodology proposed by Papazoglou in 1999. Taking advantage of Papazoglou methodology the estimation of these effects has been achieved through the definition of the links between the failure causes that are the origin of incidents and the measures adopted by the company in order to prevent and/or to mitigate them. After an overview on the failure causes in piping, the aim of this paper is to present the application of the recent modified methodology.
Źródło:
Journal of Polish Safety and Reliability Association; 2008, 2; 247--254
2084-5316
Pojawia się w:
Journal of Polish Safety and Reliability Association
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Resurgence and Waldschmidt constant of the ideal of a fat almost collinear subscheme in P2
Autorzy:
Haghighi, Hassan
Mosakhani, Mohammad
Zaman Fashami, Mohammad
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/744663.pdf
Data publikacji:
2018
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Pedagogiczny im. Komisji Edukacji Narodowej w Krakowie
Tematy:
fat points
containment problem
symbolic power
Waldschmidt constant
resurgence
Źródło:
Annales Universitatis Paedagogicae Cracoviensis. Studia Mathematica; 2018, 17
2300-133X
Pojawia się w:
Annales Universitatis Paedagogicae Cracoviensis. Studia Mathematica
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Quality and efficiency improvement and cost containment through regulated competition in the Dutch health care system
Autorzy:
Groot, Wim
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/634973.pdf
Data publikacji:
2010
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Jagielloński. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego
Tematy:
health care reform, the Netherlands, quality, efficiency, cost containment
Opis:
In 2006 the Netherlands commenced a major reform of its health care system. The main elements of the reform were: 1) replacement of the existing system of social health insurance for people with below average income and private health insurance for people with above average income by a universal private health insurance with the identical entitlements and contributions for all 2) the gradual introduction of elements of managed competition in hospital markets. The main aims of the reforms were to improve the so-called “public interests” in health care which were defined as quality, access, efficiency and cost containment in health care. This paper describes the reforms that have been enacted in the Dutch health care system and evaluates the impact of these reforms on the “public interests” in health care. The health care reforms have had positive effects on most of “public interests”, though still much needs to be done e.g. development of quality standards, curbing the rapid rising costs of health care. Nevertheless, the reforms are still a work in progress, and there is still a great deal of  room for further improvement in ‘public interest’ in the Dutch health care system.
Źródło:
Zdrowie Publiczne i Zarządzanie; 2010, 8, 1
2084-2627
Pojawia się w:
Zdrowie Publiczne i Zarządzanie
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Probability of containment and search effort factor in the dynamic search area
Autorzy:
Budny, T.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/320540.pdf
Data publikacji:
2008
Wydawca:
Polskie Forum Nawigacyjne
Tematy:
operacje ratownicze
prawdopodobieństwo zawierania się
SAR operation
probability of containment
Opis:
In the paper, there is presented a problem of search object drift during SAR operation. Presented method of conducting search takes into account probability of containment (POC) of searched object inside search area. Its also consider available endurance of SAR unit. Described method allows for achieving as good as possible average POC.
Źródło:
Annual of Navigation; 2008, 13; 15-24
1640-8632
Pojawia się w:
Annual of Navigation
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
China-Russia Bilateral Security and Military Partnership in Changing World Order: Security Challenges for the United States of America in Asia and Beyond
Autorzy:
Bharti, Mukesh Shankar
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/2146969.pdf
Data publikacji:
2022-05-14
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Mikołaja Kopernika w Toruniu. Wydawnictwo UMK
Tematy:
China
Russia
US containment policy
China-Russia Cooperation
Indo-Pacific
geopolitics
Opis:
The objective of this research is to assess the defence partnership of Russia and China after the Cold War period. This study analyses the military cooperation and strategic relation of Russia and China in the post-Cold War period. Further, the article highlights the main contradicting areas between the United States of America (USA) and the Russia-China alliance in international politics. It also elucidates the Russia-China relationship across the diplomatic paradigm and economic aspects in the global economic system. China’s flagship economic New Silk Road Initiative is a challenging concept for the US on land and maritime across the world. Thus, the study uses the research question: how do China and Russia compete with the US challenges in the new world order? The qualitative comparative method is used to investigate answers to the research questions and objectives of this study. This article attempts to use an analytical framework to describe the countries’ vision for joint development in the area of security issues. Russia and China have deep military cooperation and commit to working together against the US domination in the Asia Pacific and other parts of the world. In a conclusion it is stated that Russia and China have been accelerating bilateral military cooperation in a positive direction, which is a success story between both countries, and the US is facing stiff competition in Asia as well as in the Asia Pacific Region (APR).
Źródło:
Historia i Polityka; 2022, 40 (47)
1899-5160
2391-7652
Pojawia się w:
Historia i Polityka
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Thermodynamic consequences of hydrogen combustion within a containment of pressurized water reactor
Autorzy:
Bury, T.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/240634.pdf
Data publikacji:
2011
Wydawca:
Polska Akademia Nauk. Czytelnia Czasopism PAN
Tematy:
powstrzymywanie
reaktor jądrowy
spalanie
wodór
combustion
containment
hydrogen
LOCA
nuclear reactor
Opis:
Gaseous hydrogen may be generated in a nuclear reactor system as an effect of the core overheating. This creates a risk of its uncontrolled combustion which may have a destructive consequences, as it could be observed during the Fukushima nuclear power plant accident. Favorable conditions for hydrogen production occur during heavy loss-of-coolant accidents. The author used an own computer code, called HEPCAL, of the lumped parameter type to realize a set of simulations of a large scale loss-of-coolant accidents scenarios within containment of second generation pressurized water reactor. Some simulations resulted in high pressure peaks, seemed to be irrational. A more detailed analysis and comparison with Three Mile Island and Fukushima accidents consequences allowed for withdrawing interesting conclusions.
Źródło:
Archives of Thermodynamics; 2011, 32, 4; 67-79
1231-0956
2083-6023
Pojawia się w:
Archives of Thermodynamics
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
A model of hydrogen passive autocatalytic recombiner and its validation via CFD simulations
Autorzy:
Orszulik, M.
Fic, A.
Bury, T.
Składzień, J.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/240045.pdf
Data publikacji:
2013
Wydawca:
Polska Akademia Nauk. Czytelnia Czasopism PAN
Tematy:
nuclear reactor
containment
hydrogen
numerical modeling
CFD
reaktor jądrowy
powstrzymywanie
wodór
modelowanie numeryczne
Opis:
Passive autocatalytic recombiners (PAR) is the only used method for hydrogen removal from the containment buildings in modern nuclear reactors. Numerical models of such devices, based on the CFD approach, are the subject of this paper. The models may be coupled with two types of computer codes: the lumped parameter codes, and the computational fluid dynamics codes. This work deals with 2D numerical model of PAR and its validation. Gaseous hydrogen may be generated in water nuclear reactor systems in a course of a severe accident with core overheating. Therefore, a risk of its uncontrolled combustion appears which may be destructive to the containment structure.
Źródło:
Archives of Thermodynamics; 2013, 34, 4; 257-266
1231-0956
2083-6023
Pojawia się w:
Archives of Thermodynamics
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Modelowanie i analiza wytrzymałościowa zbiornika do transportu przedmiotów zawierających materiały wybuchowe
Modeling and strength analysis of a vessel for transporting explosive materials
Autorzy:
Krysiak, P.
Szczepaniak, M.
Śliwiński, J.
Wojciechowski, A.
Wojcieszyńska, P.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/235532.pdf
Data publikacji:
2016
Wydawca:
Wojskowy Instytut Techniczny Uzbrojenia
Tematy:
zbiornik przeciwwybuchowy
ładunek TNT
analiza wytrzymałościowa
blast-containment vessel
TNT charge
strength analysis
Opis:
W pracy przedstawiono obliczenia oraz model rzeczywisty zbiornika do transportu przedmiotów zawierających materiały wybuchowe. Zbiornik wykonano w dwóch wersjach wyposażenia. Na wstępie wyznaczono graniczną wartość ciśnienia na czole fali uderzeniowej, pochodzącą od detonacji we wnętrzu zbiornika ładunku o masie 1 kg TNT. Następnie wykonano analityczne obliczenia wytężenia korpusu pojemnika. W celu weryfikacji poziomu naprężeń, na powierzchniach elementów konstrukcyjnych naklejono czujniki tensometryczne. W kolejnej fazie przeprowadzono badania doświadczalne na poligonie, poprzez zdetonowanie we wnętrzu zbiornika 1 kg TNT. Podczas badań wykonywano pomiary odkształceń. Analizę danych zmierzonych przedstawiono na wykresach w postaci rozkładu naprężeń w funkcji czasu.
The paper presents calculations and a real model for a vessel transporting goods with explosive materials. Two options of the vessel were fabricated. An extreme value of pressure at the blast wave-front generated by the explosion of 1 kg TNT inside the vessel was determined at the beginning. Then analytical calculations of stress values for vessel frame were conducted. In order to verify the stress level, strain gauges have been attached to the surface of structural members. In the next stage experimental tests were conducted on the proving ground by explosion of 1 kg of TNT inside the vessel. Deformations were measured at the tests. An analysis of measured data is illustrated in diagrams of stress distribution versus time.
Źródło:
Problemy Techniki Uzbrojenia; 2016, 45, 139; 93-106
1230-3801
Pojawia się w:
Problemy Techniki Uzbrojenia
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Nuclear weapon in the strategies of the United States and NATO. The containment strategy
Autorzy:
Zielonka, Z.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/348473.pdf
Data publikacji:
2016
Wydawca:
Akademia Wojsk Lądowych imienia generała Tadeusza Kościuszki
Tematy:
nuclear weapons
weapons of mass destruction
atomic bomb
doctrines
strategy
containment strategy
Cold War
Opis:
The fact that the production and the use of a nuclear weapon during the World War II began a new chapter in both the development of military technology and views on the preparation and conduct of a war. Creators and supporters of the atomic bomb quickly realized that it was too powerful to force it into the framework of existing doctrines. Therefore, it proved necessary to look for other solutions as the basis for a new type of a strategy. It was expected that this would be the political-military "containment" strategy introduced in the late 1940s. This, becoming the cornerstone of the US foreign policy, treated the nuclear arsenal as the most convenient and sometimes the only tool of deterrence of the Soviet Union. In the military dimension, as a derivative of the contradictory nuclear strategy of the Truman’s administration, it did not give up the bombing of cities but through deterrence and assurance of the security of allies in Europe it proposed a quick and massive nuclear attack.
Źródło:
Zeszyty Naukowe / Wyższa Szkoła Oficerska Wojsk Lądowych im. gen. T. Kościuszki; 2016, 2; 177-193
1731-8157
Pojawia się w:
Zeszyty Naukowe / Wyższa Szkoła Oficerska Wojsk Lądowych im. gen. T. Kościuszki
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Validation of the heat and mass transfer models within a pressurized water reactor containment using the International Standard Problem No. 47 data
Autorzy:
Bury, T.
Składzień, J.
Fic, A.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/240576.pdf
Data publikacji:
2012
Wydawca:
Polska Akademia Nauk. Czytelnia Czasopism PAN
Tematy:
analiza cieplno-przepływowa
powstrzymywanie
containment
ISP-47
lumped parameter code
PWR
thermal-hydraulic analysis
Opis:
A lumped parameter type code, called HEPCAL, has been worked out in the Institute of Thermal Technology of the Silesian University of Technology for simulations of a pressurized water reactor containment transient response to a loss-of-coolant accident. The HEPCAL code has been already verified and validated against available experimental data, which in fact have been taken from separate effect tests mainly. This work is devoted to validation of the latest version of the HEPCAL code against experimental data from more complex tests. These experiments have been performed on three different test rigs (called TOSQAN,MISTRA and ThAI) and a part of them became the basis of the International Standard Problem No. 47 (ISP-47) dedicated to containment thermal-hydraulics. Selected experiments realized within the framework of the ISP-47 project have been simulated using the HEPCAL-AD code. The obtained results allowed for drawing of some important conclusions concerning heat and mass transfer models (especially steam condensation), two-phase flow model and buoyancy effects.
Źródło:
Archives of Thermodynamics; 2012, 33, 2; 23-46
1231-0956
2083-6023
Pojawia się w:
Archives of Thermodynamics
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Handling of medical devices’ customer complaints on the example of companies based in Poland
Autorzy:
Feliczek, Patryk
Górna, Justyna
Buszczak, Aleksandra
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/27313564.pdf
Data publikacji:
2022
Wydawca:
Politechnika Śląska. Wydawnictwo Politechniki Śląskiej
Tematy:
customer complaint
medical device
containment
corrective actions
skarga klienta
urządzenie medyczne
powstrzymywanie
działania naprawcze
Opis:
Purpose: The main purpose of this article was to identify and analyze correction activities and corrective actions, taken by medical devices’ companies, as a result of a customer complaint. Design/methodology/approach: The article presents the results of the study conducted among medical devices’ companies, operating on the Polish market. These companies have implemented and certified quality management system in accordance with the requirements of ISO 13485. In addition, these companies, as part of their activities, carry out various processes related to medical devices, but performing production process was the main criteria for qualifying the company for the study. On this basis, 209 companies, meeting these criteria, have been defined. The study was conducted using a survey questionnaire, available in electronic form. As part of the survey, 90 correctly completed survey questionnaires were received, what means that the response rate of surveys reached the level of 43%. Findings: The most important correction activities, indicated by the surveyed companies, include verification of suspicious products throughout the whole supply chain and replacement of a defective product with a new one. From the corrective actions perspective almost 70% of respondents indicated trainings of production employees. This is strongly related to the identified root causes, by these companies, as operators’ errors (50% of the causes lie with such errors). Almost 50% of respondents declared the update of work instructions as a corrective action, which is also related to the high number of indications for operator trainings. Originality/value: The article presents main activities, that are taken by the medical devices’ companies in Poland to increase the safety and performance of medical devices, if an abnormality occurs. The article may be treated as an benchmark for medical devices companies once reviewing their approach to implementing corrections and corrective actions.
Źródło:
Zeszyty Naukowe. Organizacja i Zarządzanie / Politechnika Śląska; 2022, 160; 159--172
1641-3466
Pojawia się w:
Zeszyty Naukowe. Organizacja i Zarządzanie / Politechnika Śląska
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Projekt oraz weryfikacja wytrzymałościowa skrzyni akumulatorowej i aparaturowej górniczej maszyny mobilnej
Design and strength verification of the battery and apparatus boxes for the mining mobile machine
Autorzy:
Kalita, M.
Mazurkiewicz, A.
Tarkowski, A.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/199236.pdf
Data publikacji:
2018
Wydawca:
Instytut Techniki Górniczej KOMAG
Tematy:
projektowanie
skrzynia akumulatorowa
skrzynia aparaturowa
ognioszczelność
ATEX
design
battery box
apparatus box
containment of flames
Opis:
W artykule przedstawiono wyniki prac projektowych konstrukcji skrzyń akumulatorowej i aparaturowej, przeznaczonych dla górniczej maszyny mobilnej. Prace realizowano w ramach projektu HYDKOM 75 pt.: „Innowacyjna maszyna mobilna z uniwersalnym układem napędu elektrycznego, podwyższającym poziom bezpieczeństwa technicznego" współfinansowanego ze środków Europejskiego Funduszu Rozwoju Regionalnego. Projekt jest realizowany na podstawie umowy o dofinansowanie z Narodowym Centrum Badań i Rozwoju w ramach Programu Operacyjnego Innowacyjny Rozwój, Działanie 4.1.2 Regionalne agendy naukowo-badawcze. Współwykonawcą projektu jest przedsiębiorstwo Hydrotech S.A. W artykule omówiono budowę skrzyń oraz przedstawiono wyniki weryfikacji wytrzymałościowej metodą elementów skończonych. Przedstawiono wymagania formalno-prawne oraz warunki niezbędne do spełnienia wymagań zasadniczych ujętych w Dyrektywie ATEX.
Results of the design work on the structure of battery and apparatus boxes intended for the mining mobile machine are presented. The work was carried out as part of the HYDKOM 75 project entitled "Innovative mobile machine with a universal electric drive system, increasing the level of technical safety" co-financed from the European Regional Development Fund. The project is implemented on the basis of co-financing from the National Centre for Research and Development under the Operational Programme Innovative Development, Measure 4. 1. 2 Regional Science and Research Agendas. The co-contractor of the project is Hydrotech S.A. The structure of boxes and the results of strength verification using the finite element method is discussed. The formal and legal requirements as well as the conditions necessary to meet the essential requirements included in the ATEX Directive are presented.
Źródło:
Maszyny Górnicze; 2018, 36, 4; 3-18
0209-3693
2450-9442
Pojawia się w:
Maszyny Górnicze
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
The concept of ‘China as a threat’ and ‘Peaceful China’ in terms of contemporary world order and hegemony of the United States
Autorzy:
Bondarenko, Vasylisa
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/1933381.pdf
Data publikacji:
2021-06-30
Wydawca:
Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek
Tematy:
China
United States
threat
containment policy
international relations
world politics
regional security
global hegemony
global governance
Opis:
The relationship between the two countries has been a complex and diverse subject of investigation and contemplation. The interconnection between the two countries can be described by the following central notions, such as economic cooperation, rivalry in terms of status acquisition of global hegemonic power, particularly in the Pacific region and beyond controversy mutual suspicion over each other’s intentions. Therefore, it is clearly justified that each state has elaborated and adopted a specific manner of conduct and attitude regarding each other as a potential adversary but has meanwhile maintained an extremely strong economic partnership. It is fair to state, that the relationship between both countries has been described by multiple world leaders and academics as the world’s most significant bilateral relationship of the 21st century. Due to the fact that Chinese economy has started to develop increasingly fast and PRC has strengthened its positions on the world’s arena, the United States started to perceive the Middle Kingdom as a direct threat to the established world order in its drive for regional hegemony in East Asia now as well as future aspirant for global supremacy. Beijing, by contrast rejects these notions, and continues its assertive policies and its quest for allies.
Źródło:
Reality of Politics; 2021, 16; 13-23
2082-3959
Pojawia się w:
Reality of Politics
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Teoria kontroli społecznej w kryminologii
The Theory of Social Control in Criminology
Autorzy:
Kossowska, Anna
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/699086.pdf
Data publikacji:
1983
Wydawca:
Polska Akademia Nauk. Instytut Nauk Prawnych PAN
Tematy:
kontrola społeczna
teoria powstrzymywania
socjalizacja
więzi społeczne
kryminologia
containment theory
socialization
social control
social bonds
criminology
Opis:
              "Social control" is one of thę most fundamental  concepts in sociology. Nevertheless, the meaning of that term has changed, parallel with the development of sociology as an academic discipline. Originally, the idea of social control was the focal idea in studies of the organization and growth of industrial societies, and formed the basis of investigations of the various elements constituting law and order. Nowadays, the dominant trend is to narrow the meaning of the term „social control" to defining the process of conformism to the rules of society. It is this second meaning that is used in criminology today. There is a basic difference betwęen the theory of social control and other criminological theories. This difference consists in the fact that this theory, unlike other ones, tries to explain why people do not break the law, why they behave according to the rules of society, why they fall in with the group - in other words, why they are conformist in their  attitude towards the rules and norms, as well as to the values generally accepted by society. The other theories try to find out what makes people go against the social norm.       The basic principle of the theory of social control is the recognition that human beings must learn social behaviour through a process of socialisation. The aim of socialisation is to lead people to absorb the norms and values held in esteem by a given society. The process whereby the individual absorbs social norms and values depends mainly on the character of his links with the primary social groups, on the cohesion of the system of social norms, and on how far conformily with those norms will offer him the advantages he looks for.        A survey of the criminological literature dealing with the question of the effect of social control on deviant behaviour reveals that several theoretical  approaches exist, each of them emphasizing different elements of such control. These elements are: the social bonds, the system of norms and yalues and the course and results of socialisation. These three theoretical approaches are not mutually exclusive. They are undoubtedly complementary.     We can distinguish three theoretical approaches to social control: a) the socialisation approach, b) the sociar bond approach, and c) the normative system approach.      In the first of these approaches, attempts are made above all to explain how socialisation takes place, and what results it leads to.     The chief representatives of this approach may be said to be W. Reckless, I. Nye, and A. Reiss. Recklessr is the author of the containment theory, in which he distinguishes the following elements of social control: We have outer containment when external pressure is exerted on the individualn by the group, or by society, in order to bring about behaviour approved by the group. This kind of pressure is exerted through training the individual to carry out socially approved roles, through his affiliation to tradition and the community in which he lives, and through direct control. We have inner containment when, through socialisation, the individual develops self-control, that is, what we sometimes call his conscience. Five elements developed in the course of socialisation go to make up inner containment: a favorable self-concept, goal orientation, a realistic,aspiration level, adequate frustration tolerance, and commitment to socially accepted norms and values.        These two mechanisms - outer containment and inner containment  - function either together or soparately. In some cases they reinforce each other, while in other cases they are complementary. On the whole, inner containment regulates behaviour based on a person's internal pressures whereas outer containment is used when factors in the environment favour criminal  behaviour. But there are also frequent situations where, when inner containment fails, behaviour is modified by exteinal controlling factors; and conversely, it sometimes happens that in situations where control by the social group or social institutions is ineffective, self-control is the regulating mechanism. Nye is of  the opinion that the role of social control in society is that it strengthens our motivation towards conformist behaviour. It is a factor that increases our conformism, whereas lack of it  encourages anti-social behaviour. Nye  sees four types of social control: Internal control occurs when, in the course of socialisation the individual Internalises the norms and values generally accepted in the given society, so that they become components of this conscience. Indirect control is based on the emotional links between the child and his parents which cause the child to absorb the rules of behaviour passed on by the parents in the course of socialisation. Direct control is exerted by the social institutions and primary groups; punishments are threatened in the case of nonconformist behaviour. Then we have legitimate need satisfaction, where society guarantees that the emotional needs of the individual will be met if he conforms, but threatens that these needs will not be satisfied if he does not conform.       In his well-known paper on the connection between the breakdown of social  control and the occurrence of criminal behaviour, A. Reiss3 declares that criminaIity may be defined as behaviour that is the consequence of the failure of personal control and social control, as regards the regulation of human behaviour in keeping with the social norms.      According to Reiss,  criminal behaviour occurs firstly, when there is a relative lack of internalised norms and rules that would keep behaviour conformist; secondly, when a control mechanism  that previously functioned properly breaks down; and thirdly, when the group to which the individual belongs is such that the social principles for inculcating conformist behaviour are on  the whole lacking, ( or when there is a split between these social principles).       Criminality may be regarded as a function of the relationship between personal control and social control.       The second approach to the theory of social control lays emphasis on the social bond. Hirschi is the chief exponent of this approach, according to which the bonds (taken in the wide sense) between the individual and other people  are the fundamental instrument of social control. According to Hirschi, the social bond consists of four main elements: 1) personal, emotional links (attachment), 2) a rational commitment to conformist behaviour, along with expectations as to punishment and reward (commitment); 3) a degree of involvement which would leave no room for deviant behaviour (involvement), and 4) beliefs.                  In the case of personal attachment, the behaviour of the individual will depend on how sensitive he is to the opinions of others, on how far he reckons with their views. The people who matter here are the members of the primary groups to which the given individual belongs, the people whose opinion he respects, the people who  will expext him to conform to the norms which they themselves recognize. According to Hirschi, the groups with whom bonds are all important are: the parents, the school, and the peer group.         Commitment means that the person absorbs the life style of his environment. A strong commitment to conformist behaviour, with the aim of achieving the kind of goals ranked high by the given culture, means that the person may lose a great deal if he acts contrary to the norms accepted by that culture. At the same time, conformism guarantees as it were that the person's  aspirations will be achieved.        Strong involvement in conformist behaviour results in the fact that the person spends so much time and energy in keeping to the generally accepted model of behaviour that even "physically" he cannot behave otherwise (e.g. for lack of time).          Beliefs affect the acceptance or otherwise of the norms  adhered to in a given society. Difference of behaviour between individuals may be due to difference in the degree to which the norms laid down by the law are accepted.       By and large  Hirschi believes that all four types of social bond act together. Yet he also accepts that the diverse elements separately may each have an independent effect on the person's behaviour. Schrag is one of those who adopt the normative and system approach to the question of the functioning of social control. He examines the functioning of the social control system on two planes; 1) culturally approved ends- culturally approved means, and 2) behaviour expected in a given society (prescriptions) – actual behaviour (performance). The cultural goals (prescribed ends) are values such as: freedom, justice, equality, happiness, security, Means that are approved by society (prescribed means) are such norms as: the law, beliefs, legal codes, regulations, agreements. Goals which may actually be achieved (performed ends) are goals such as influence, social status, prestige, education, reputation, money. The means actually used to attain these goals (performed means) are practices such as. customs, traditions, conventions of behaviour, innovations in existing customs.      A social system works well when all its constituent elements work well together. In such circumstances there are no disruptions in the functioning of social control. But if the various elements of the system clash, social control ceases to function efficiently, that is, it ceases to regulate human behaviour effectively. There is always a danger that the connections between the various elements of the system will become looser. This danger may take at least six forms: the accepted norms may not be able to protect the group values; goals may be beyond the reach of practical action; ways of behaving may be at odds with the sopially accepted norms; goals may be in conflict with the generally accepted values; there may also be a contradiction between values and practices, and between goals and norms. If the system is to work well, it is essential that there should be no basis divergence between formal (= legal) norms, and informal (= moral) norms. If the legal norms are rejected by the group because they do not fit in with the group's values, social control will not work.        According to Schrag, the causes of crime should be sought not so much in the individual as in the social system and the way it functions.       To sum up, one may present the sociological theory of social control as follows. It asks what makes people ready to subscribe to the norms and values accepted in a given society. Three basic types of answer may be given to this question. Answers of the first type stress the course and the effectiveness of socialisation processes. Answers of the second type emphasize the role of social bonds in the shaping of conformist behaviour. Answers of the third type draw attention to the importance of cohesion in the system of norms and values in a given society.        On the whole, socialisation is a process that takes place within the primary groups. Its aim is to make the individual adopt society's norms and values. The optimum situation is where these norms become internalised, that is, they become an integral part of the person's internal mental and moral structure. If this happens, we can say that inner control governs behaviour - that is, the person’s own conscience keeps him  from behaviour that does not fit the generally accepted patterns. This goal can be achieved when there are strong bonds of affection between an individual and his parents, and also when the individual finds emotional support in other primary groups. The role of the primary groups is not only to provide good personal models to imitate, or to help the inaividual to adopt the generally accepted norms, but also to exercise direct control over tbe individual' behaviour by inducing him  to conform. If the individual is to absorb a sociaily approved system of norms and values, that system should be a well integrated  one, the rules should be clearly stated, and behaviour at odds with the approved norm should encounter expected social sanctions. Social control is most effective when three basic factors play a role: when socialisation follows its undisturbed course, when the individual finds support in the group and the group is able to control the behaviour of the individual, and thirdly when the system of social norms and values is cohesive and clear. In times of social unrest, when bonds are weaker, and the individual does not know what to expect from society, social control will be unable to exert effective control over the individual’s behaviour.
                "Social control" is one of thę most fundamental  concepts in sociology. Nevertheless, the meaning of that term has changed, parallel with the development of sociology as an academic discipline. Originally, the idea of social control was the focal idea in studies of the organization and growth of industrial societies, and formed the basis of investigations of the various elements constituting law and order. Nowadays, the dominant trend is to narrow the meaning of the term „social control" to defining the process of conformism to the rules of society. It is this second meaning that is used in criminology today. There is a basic difference betwęen the theory of social control and other criminological theories. This difference consists in the fact that this theory, unlike other ones, tries to explain why people do not break the law, why they behave according to the rules of society, why they fall in with the group - in other words, why they are conformist in their  attitude towards the rules and norms, as well as to the values generally accepted by society. The other theories try to find out what makes people go against the social norm.       The basic principle of the theory of social control is the recognition that human beings must learn social behaviour through a process of socialisation. The aim of socialisation is to lead people to absorb the norms and values held in esteem by a given society. The process whereby the individual absorbs social norms and values depends mainly on the character of his links with the primary social groups, on the cohesion of the system of social norms, and on how far conformily with those norms will offer him the advantages he looks for.        A survey of the criminological literature dealing with the question of the effect of social control on deviant behaviour reveals that several theoretical  approaches exist, each of them emphasizing different elements of such control. These elements are: the social bonds, the system of norms and yalues and the course and results of socialisation. These three theoretical approaches are not mutually exclusive. They are undoubtedly complementary.     We can distinguish three theoretical approaches to social control: a) the socialisation approach, b) the sociar bond approach, and c) the normative system approach.      In the first of these approaches, attempts are made above all to explain how socialisation takes place, and what results it leads to.     The chief representatives of this approach may be said to be W. Reckless, I. Nye, and A. Reiss. Recklessr is the author of the containment theory, in which he distinguishes the following elements of social control: We have outer containment when external pressure is exerted on the individualn by the group, or by society, in order to bring about behaviour approved by the group. This kind of pressure is exerted through training the individual to carry out socially approved roles, through his affiliation to tradition and the community in which he lives, and through direct control. We have inner containment when, through socialisation, the individual develops self-control, that is, what we sometimes call his conscience. Five elements developed in the course of socialisation go to make up inner containment: a favorable self-concept, goal orientation, a realistic,aspiration level, adequate frustration tolerance, and commitment to socially accepted norms and values.        These two mechanisms - outer containment and inner containment  - function either together or soparately. In some cases they reinforce each other, while in other cases they are complementary. On the whole, inner containment regulates behaviour based on a person's internal pressures whereas outer containment is used when factors in the environment favour criminal  behaviour. But there are also frequent situations where, when inner containment fails, behaviour is modified by exteinal controlling factors; and conversely, it sometimes happens that in situations where control by the social group or social institutions is ineffective, self-control is the regulating mechanism. Nye is of  the opinion that the role of social control in society is that it strengthens our motivation towards conformist behaviour. It is a factor that increases our conformism, whereas lack of it  encourages anti-social behaviour. Nye  sees four types of social control: Internal control occurs when, in the course of socialisation the individual Internalises the norms and values generally accepted in the given society, so that they become components of this conscience. Indirect control is based on the emotional links between the child and his parents which cause the child to absorb the rules of behaviour passed on by the parents in the course of socialisation. Direct control is exerted by the social institutions and primary groups; punishments are threatened in the case of nonconformist behaviour. Then we have legitimate need satisfaction, where society guarantees that the emotional needs of the individual will be met if he conforms, but threatens that these needs will not be satisfied if he does not conform.       In his well-known paper on the connection between the breakdown of social  control and the occurrence of criminal behaviour, A. Reiss3 declares that criminaIity may be defined as behaviour that is the consequence of the failure of personal control and social control, as regards the regulation of human behaviour in keeping with the social norms.      According to Reiss,  criminal behaviour occurs firstly, when there is a relative lack of internalised norms and rules that would keep behaviour conformist; secondly, when a control mechanism  that previously functioned properly breaks down; and thirdly, when the group to which the individual belongs is such that the social principles for inculcating conformist behaviour are on  the whole lacking, ( or when there is a split between these social principles).       Criminality may be regarded as a function of the relationship between personal control and social control.       The second approach to the theory of social control lays emphasis on the social bond. Hirschi is the chief exponent of this approach, according to which the bonds (taken in the wide sense) between the individual and other people  are the fundamental instrument of social control. According to Hirschi, the social bond consists of four main elements: 1) personal, emotional links (attachment), 2) a rational commitment to conformist behaviour, along with expectations as to punishment and reward (commitment); 3) a degree of involvement which would leave no room for deviant behaviour (involvement), and 4) beliefs.                  In the case of personal attachment, the behaviour of the individual will depend on how sensitive he is to the opinions of others, on how far he reckons with their views. The people who matter here are the members of the primary groups to which the given individual belongs, the people whose opinion he respects, the people who  will expext him to conform to the norms which they themselves recognize. According to Hirschi, the groups with whom bonds are all important are: the parents, the school, and the peer group.         Commitment means that the person absorbs the life style of his environment. A strong commitment to conformist behaviour, with the aim of achieving the kind of goals ranked high by the given culture, means that the person may lose a great deal if he acts contrary to the norms accepted by that culture. At the same time, conformism guarantees as it were that the person's  aspirations will be achieved.        Strong involvement in conformist behaviour results in the fact that the person spends so much time and energy in keeping to the generally accepted model of behaviour that even "physically" he cannot behave otherwise (e.g. for lack of time).          Beliefs affect the acceptance or otherwise of the norms  adhered to in a given society. Difference of behaviour between individuals may be due to difference in the degree to which the norms laid down by the law are accepted.       By and large  Hirschi believes that all four types of social bond act together. Yet he also accepts that the diverse elements separately may each have an independent effect on the person's behaviour. Schrag is one of those who adopt the normative and system approach to the question of the functioning of social control. He examines the functioning of the social control system on two planes; 1) culturally approved ends- culturally approved means, and 2) behaviour expected in a given society (prescriptions) – actual behaviour (performance). The cultural goals (prescribed ends) are values such as: freedom, justice, equality, happiness, security, Means that are approved by society (prescribed means) are such norms as: the law, beliefs, legal codes, regulations, agreements. Goals which may actually be achieved (performed ends) are goals such as influence, social status, prestige, education, reputation, money. The means actually used to attain these goals (performed means) are practices such as. customs, traditions, conventions of behaviour, innovations in existing customs.      A social system works well when all its constituent elements work well together. In such circumstances there are no disruptions in the functioning of social control. But if the various elements of the system clash, social control ceases to function efficiently, that is, it ceases to regulate human behaviour effectively. There is always a danger that the connections between the various elements of the system will become looser. This danger may take at least six forms: the accepted norms may not be able to protect the group values; goals may be beyond the reach of practical action; ways of behaving may be at odds with the sopially accepted norms; goals may be in conflict with the generally accepted values; there may also be a contradiction between values and practices, and between goals and norms. If the system is to work well, it is essential that there should be no basis divergence between formal (= legal) norms, and informal (= moral) norms. If the legal norms are rejected by the group because they do not fit in with the group's values, social control will not work.        According to Schrag, the causes of crime should be sought not so much in the individual as in the social system and the way it functions.       To sum up, one may present the sociological theory of social control as follows. It asks what makes people ready to subscribe to the norms and values accepted in a given society. Three basic types of answer may be given to this question. Answers of the first type stress the course and the effectiveness of socialisation processes. Answers of the second type emphasize the role of social bonds in the shaping of conformist behaviour. Answers of the third type draw attention to the importance of cohesion in the system of norms and values in a given society.        On the whole, socialisation is a process that takes place within the primary groups. Its aim is to make the individual adopt society's norms and values. The optimum situation is where these norms become internalised, that is, they become an integral part of the person's internal mental and moral structure. If this happens, we can say that inner control governs behaviour - that is, the person’s own conscience keeps him  from behaviour that does not fit the generally accepted patterns. This goal can be achieved when there are strong bonds of affection between an individual and his parents, and also when the individual finds emotional support in other primary groups. The role of the primary groups is not only to provide good personal models to imitate, or to help the inaividual to adopt the generally accepted norms, but also to exercise direct control over tbe individual' behaviour by inducing him  to conform. If the individual is to absorb a sociaily approved system of norms and values, that system should be a well integrated  one, the rules should be clearly stated, and behaviour at odds with the approved norm should encounter expected social sanctions. Social control is most effective when three basic factors play a role: when socialisation follows its undisturbed course, when the individual finds support in the group and the group is able to control the behaviour of the individual, and thirdly when the system of social norms and values is cohesive and clear. In times of social unrest, when bonds are weaker, and the individual does not know what to expect from society, social control will be unable to exert effective control over the individual’s behaviour.
Źródło:
Archiwum Kryminologii; 1983, X; 7-22
0066-6890
2719-4280
Pojawia się w:
Archiwum Kryminologii
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Wyświetlanie 1-15 z 20

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