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Tytuł:
A world according to artificial neural networks
Autorzy:
Schuster, A.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/307811.pdf
Data publikacji:
2003
Wydawca:
Instytut Łączności - Państwowy Instytut Badawczy
Tematy:
sztuczne sieci neuronowe
artificial neural networks
cognitive science
input space transformation
Opis:
This paper presents results from a preliminary study in the field of artificial neural networks (ANN). The overall aim of our work relates to the field of cognitive science. In this wider framework we try to investigate, reason about, and model cognitive processes in order to obtain a better understanding of the major processing device involved - the human brain. In terms of content this paper presents a novel ANN learning approach. Note that through-out the paper we assume supervised learning. In contrast to the classical ANN learning approach where an ANN algorithm alters an initial random weight assignment until a reasonable solution to a problem is obtained this approach does not alter the initial random weight assignment at all, but provides a solution to the problem by transforming the actual input data. The approach is applied to perceptrons and adalines and its quality is demonstrated on simple classification problems.
Źródło:
Journal of Telecommunications and Information Technology; 2003, 3; 102-107
1509-4553
1899-8852
Pojawia się w:
Journal of Telecommunications and Information Technology
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Dlaczego nauka nie może być wolna od wartości
Why Science cannot be Value-free
Autorzy:
Lekka-Kowalik, Agnieszka
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/2015633.pdf
Data publikacji:
2004
Wydawca:
Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski Jana Pawła II. Towarzystwo Naukowe KUL
Tematy:
nauka wolna od wartościowań
metoda naukowa
sądy wartościujące
wartości poznawcze
wartości moralne
„tłuste” pojęcia etyczne
dychotomia fakt/wartość
value-free science
scientific method
value judgements
cognitive values
moral values
„thick” ethical concepts
fact/value dichotomy
Opis:
Three arguments are developed to support this thesis: (1) Since there is no algorithm for making methodological decisions as to what theory should be accepted, what method should be used, etc, scientists have to pass judgements that are essentially evaluative. Those judgements belong to science. The attempt to save the ideal of value-free science by distinguishing value-free object language and value-laden metalanguage (in which those evaluative judgements would be formulated) does not work. For there are no reasons to expel the methodology of a given science from that science, and even if we made this move, we would finally come to the level of evaluative judgements, unless we accept regressus ad infinitum. (2) Even if the above distinction were tenable, this would not save the ideal of value-free science. For our language is full of the so-called „thick ethical concepts” that are both descriptive and evaluative. They are justifiably used at least in some sciences. We could exclude – by definition - such concepts from science, but this would result in expelling many legitimate disciplines from the realm of science. This would mean not that science was value--free but that we made it so. (3) The fact that scientific results are sometimes expressed by means of ethically thick concepts does not allow us to restrict values involved in science to epistemological values – moral values are involved as well. Moreover, apparently pure methodological concepts such as „good solution” or „sufficient evidence” seem to be also „ethically thick”. Such considerations allow us to draw a conclusion that science possesses intrinsic moral dimension, and separating the epistemic and moral points of view in discussions about science is unjustified.
Źródło:
Roczniki Filozoficzne; 2004, 52, 2; 275-293
0035-7685
Pojawia się w:
Roczniki Filozoficzne
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Norms of the Ethos of Science and the Ecological Realities of Research Work
Normy ethosu nauki a realia ekologiczne pracy naukowej
Autorzy:
Goćkowski, Janusz
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/1856475.pdf
Data publikacji:
2005
Wydawca:
Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski Jana Pawła II. Towarzystwo Naukowe KUL
Tematy:
ethos nauki
praca naukowa
prawda naukowa
normy zawodu uczonego
wolność korzystania z przyjmowania i głoszenia słowa
reguły działań poznawczych w nauce
ethos of science
scientific work
scientific truth
norms of the profession of the scientist
freedom of receiving and transmitting the word
rules of cognitive actions in science
Opis:
Scientists’ professional work is a style of using the freedom of receiving and transmitting the word because of striving after the truth typical of the ‘scientific perspective of the world’. The use of such freedom is revealed by the researcher’s definition of himself: he is the one who has the duty of joining criticism with conceptualism; objectivity with rationalism; ‘disobedience in thinking’ with being careful about ‘sovereignty of the thought’; taking care of the functioning of a lot of ‘research programs’ that compete with each other with care of polyphony in scientific discussions. The characteristic of the style of research work is combined with the characteristic of the scientist as an actor playing social roles in the professional circle. The scientist uses the freedom that he needs as a professional-specialist doing his work within the frames of a special kind of institution. Taking into consideration the existence of ‘the Great Science’ and ‘a mass man in science’, we are dealing here with conformation of the scientist as one who wants to use this kind of freedom. We are talking here about the difficulty of exacting respect for the norms of the ethos of science from scientists. This is connected with constant conflicts in the circle of scientists that originate from different ways of understanding and treating those norms. Ecological realities of the scientific work only to some extent favor practicing the profession of the scientist in the proper way. In many respects those realities seriously hinder the proper use of the freedom to receive and transmit the word because of the truth of the scientific type. The realities of the order of scientific search and consideration; the realities of the scientists’ circle; the realities of the world surrounding the scientists’ circle along with its institutions are all significant here. Hence it is important, in our present time, to be faithful to the fundamental dictates to think and to act, which concerns those who make the search for the scientific truth their profession and their vocation.
Źródło:
Roczniki Nauk Społecznych; 2005, 33, 1; 5-23
0137-4176
Pojawia się w:
Roczniki Nauk Społecznych
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Semantyczna analiza oprogramowania GIS
Semantic analysis of GIS software
Autorzy:
Pomianowski, W.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/204177.pdf
Data publikacji:
2005
Wydawca:
Polskie Towarzystwo Geograficzne
Tematy:
GIS system
geoinformatyka
semiologia
oprogramowanie
GIS theory
geoscience
software engineering
semiotics
cognitive science
Opis:
Brakuje metody opisu programów GIS, która pozwoliłaby poznać nie tylko ich funkcje i sposób komunikacji z użytkownikiem, ale również ich głęboką strukturę. Celem analizy semantycznej jest odkrycie tej struktury i zbadanie jej związku ze strukturą poznawczą dyscypliny macierzystej - geografii. Podstawową jednostką głębokiej struktury jest metafora.
GIS software descriptions are widespread but often useless, because they are unable to reveal the inner logic of the system. Like other complex software, GIS may be analysed in terms of three layers: 1) functionality, 2) user interface (shallow layer) and 3) cognitive structures (deep layer). Vendor information sources, factsheets and application studies cover, for the most part, functionality and shallow layer, neglecting deep structure. However, misunderstanding and mismatch between user cognitive structure and software structure severely impairs GIS usefulness, especially when big projects are concerned. The rescue may come from cognitive science and semiology rather than from software engineering. Semantic analysis should be used to 1) achieve good design for new systems, 2) describe exsisting software and make a foundation for professional critical activity, similar to literary or architectural one. Semantic analysis focuses on the mapping between domain-specific cognitive structure and corresponding deep software structure. The letter must be consistent (logically congruent), compact (devoid of unnecessary terms) and abstract (make use of general terms). Metaphors constitute basic components of deep software layer, conveying meaning and analogy from the real world or domain. To properly analyse system at hand, metaphors must be extracted first. The next step is to review each metaphor along five dimensions: 1) analogue (reference to external object), 2) properties, 3) behaviour, 4) composition (if consisting of simpler parts) and 5) relations to other metaphors within the system.
Źródło:
Polski Przegląd Kartograficzny; 2005, T. 37, nr 1, 1; 13-22
0324-8321
Pojawia się w:
Polski Przegląd Kartograficzny
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Uczenie się i emocje. Pedagogiczne następstwa wybranych koncepcji kognitywnych
Learning and Emotions. Pedagogical implications of selected cognitive conceptions
Autorzy:
Góralska, Renata
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/417775.pdf
Data publikacji:
2008
Wydawca:
Akademickie Towarzystwo Andragogiczne
Tematy:
learning
emotion
cognitive science
Opis:
The aim of this article is to point to connections between intellectual and emotional aspects of learning. Cognitive science, especially research of neurobiologists (e.g. A. Damasio's somatic marker hypothesis) form theoretical basis of consideration of the issue and point to re-defining teaching-learning processes as necessity.
Źródło:
Rocznik Andragogiczny; 2008, R. 2008; 45-56
1429-186X
2391-7571
Pojawia się w:
Rocznik Andragogiczny
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
A versatile model for music creation utilizing tension states
Autorzy:
Ruuska, H.
Takebayashi, Y.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/385256.pdf
Data publikacji:
2009
Wydawca:
Sieć Badawcza Łukasiewicz - Przemysłowy Instytut Automatyki i Pomiarów
Tematy:
musical composition
music analysis
cognitive science
computer-generated music
Opis:
We investigates novel methods for creating systems for assisting musical composing. In this presentation we describe some previously neglected problem areas in musical structure analysis: knowledge-based computational expectation mapping and narrative-based structure. We also investigate how results from musical pattern analysis might be used for predicting human cognitive processing of general commonsense domains in everyday life. We conclude with a statement of how investigating music can lead to insights in other fields of cognitive science.
Źródło:
Journal of Automation Mobile Robotics and Intelligent Systems; 2009, 3, 4; 184-186
1897-8649
2080-2145
Pojawia się w:
Journal of Automation Mobile Robotics and Intelligent Systems
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Chemia jest nauką interdyscyplinarną i ma ogromne znaczenie w wielu innych dziedzinach
Chemistry is an interdisciplinary science and is very important for many other disciplines
Autorzy:
Taniewski, M.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/1221496.pdf
Data publikacji:
2010
Wydawca:
Stowarzyszenie Inżynierów i Techników Przemysłu Chemicznego. Zakład Wydawniczy CHEMPRESS-SITPChem
Tematy:
rozwój współczesnej chemii
cechy współczesnej chemii
nauki chemiczne multidyscyplinarne
misja chemii
technologie chemiczne proekologiczne zrównoważone
bariery rozwojowe
chemofobia
chemia a globalne zagrożenia
przyszłość chemii
features of contemporary chemistry
multidisciplinary chemical sciences
civilisation mission of chemistry
cognitive mission of chemistry
chemistry as the central science
environment-friendly sustainable chemical technologies
growth barriers
chemistryphobia
interdisciplinary chemistry
chemistry threats
future of chemistry
Opis:
Omówiono rozwój i cechy współczesnej chemii, a także jej poznawczą i cywilizacyjną misję. Zwrócono uwagę, że po erze rolniczej, przemysłowej i naukowo-technicznej, świat wkracza w Wiek Środowiska (a także informatyki), w którym cywilizacja podąży drogami opartymi nie tylko na potrzebie opanowywania przyrody, ale także umiejętności harmonijnego z nią współżycia. Będzie to okres realizacji tzw. proekologicznej strategii zrównoważonego trwałego rozwoju (sustainable development), w którym wprowadzane będą zrównoważone technologie podporządkowane pokonywaniu barier rozwojowych (materiałowej, surowcowej, ekologicznej). W odniesieniu do chemii identyfikowana jest dodatkowo bariera psychologiczna - objawy niechęci społecznej i strachu przed chemią. Wspomniano o działaniach branży chemicznej na rzecz samodoskonalenia poprzez inicjowanie i realizację wielu prośrodowiskowych programów. Omówiono pojęcie "interdyscyplinarna chemia" oraz rolę chemii w rozwiązywaniu globalnych problemów świata. Konstatując, że chemia w istocie współkształtuje przyszłość, Autor wyraża opinię, że w interesie ludzkości jest rozkwit i słoneczna przyszłość chemii.
This paper presents the development and features of contemporary chemistry, its cognitive and civilisation mission. It was noted that after the eras of agriculture, industry, science and technology, the world entered the "Age of Environment" (also informatics), where civilisation is to follow not only the roads of harnessing the nature, but also those of harmonious coexistence with it. This age, therefore, should be a period of implementing the strategy of sustainable development, when sustainable technologies, aimed at overcoming growth barriers (material, energy and environmental barriers), will be introduced. In the case of chemistry, one more barrier has been identified: a psychological barrier - manifested by social aversion to and fear of chemistry. Mention is made of "self-improvement" activities of the chemical sector consisting in initiating and carrying out a number of environmental programmes. The concept of "interdisciplinary chemistry" is discussed along with the role of chemistry in solving global problems of the world. Concluding that chemistry does, in fact, shape the future, the author expresses the opinion that the growth and sunny future of chemistry is in the interest of humankind.
Źródło:
Chemik; 2010, 64, 5; 327-336
0009-2886
Pojawia się w:
Chemik
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Albert Einstein o nauce, jej funkcjach i celach
ALBERT EINSTEIN ABOUT SCIENCE, ITS FUNCTIONS AND AIMS
Autorzy:
Butryn, Stanisław
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/577635.pdf
Data publikacji:
2011
Wydawca:
Polska Akademia Nauk. Czytelnia Czasopism PAN
Tematy:
EINSTEIN
ESSENCE OF SCIENCE
ESSENCE OF EDUCATION
COGNITIVE FUNCTION OF SCIENCE
PRACTICAL FUNCTION OF SCIENCE
AIMS OF SCIENCE
Opis:
The article attempts to reconstruct in short Einstein’s views on the most important features of science and its functions and aims. The author presents Einstein’s views on the essence of education, his visions of the authentic scientist capable of creating science, the conception grasping science as intellectual activity, the essence of which is the purely cognitive function. Then the most significant cognitive and practical functions and aims of science, as viewed by Einstein, are presented.
Źródło:
Zagadnienia Naukoznawstwa; 2011, 47, 3(189); 349-359
0044-1619
Pojawia się w:
Zagadnienia Naukoznawstwa
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Czy potrzebna nam teoria fundamentalna? Refleksje na temat teorii świadomości Davida Chalmersa
Is the Fundamental Theory Necessary? Remarks on the David Chalmers Theory of Consciousness
Autorzy:
Hohol, Mateusz
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/691052.pdf
Data publikacji:
2011
Wydawca:
Copernicus Center Press
Tematy:
cognitive science
consciousness
mind
philosophy of mind
qualia
supervenience
philosophy of science
David Chalmers
Opis:
The article presents a survey of the fundamental theory of consciousness according to David Chalmers. In order to examine these issues the following actions are taken. In the first part, the philosophical and cognitive-scientific views of David Chalmers are summarized in detail. Particular attention is paid to the following issues: the distinction between the easy and hard problem of consciousness, the nature of qualia, supervenience, as well as the arguments against the reductive accounts of consciousness. The elements of the structure of Chalmers’ fundamental theory: e.g., the principle of structural coherence, the principle of organizational invariance and the principle of double aspects of information are presented. Also, the problems of the relationship between mind and quantum mechanics are analyzed. In the second part, Chalmers’ theory of consciousness is challenged and criticized in three areas: cognitive science, philosophy of science and philosophy of physics. In the summary, the reply to the question in the title of the article is suggested.
Źródło:
Zagadnienia Filozoficzne w Nauce; 2011, 49; 3-45
0867-8286
2451-0602
Pojawia się w:
Zagadnienia Filozoficzne w Nauce
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Dwa argumenty za opcją odpowiedzi Nie-wiem oprócz opcji Tak/Nie w anonimowych testach zrozumienia zależności przyczynowo-skutkowych
Two Arguments for Options I-don’t-know Except Options Yes /No in Anonymous Questionnaire Survey on Understanding the Causal Relations
Autorzy:
Chmiel, Izabela
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/637891.pdf
Data publikacji:
2011
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Jagielloński. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego
Tematy:
Cognitive Science
Opis:
In the experiment we examined the behaviour of the participants at the two seemingly equivalent decision situations. At the first situation the participants, aimed to avoid a decisive answer, can only refuse at all, neither Yes nor No. But at the second situation they can choose an additional option I-don’t-know. It was proved that, even in the anonymous survey, the same participants tried to guess the proper Yes or No answers, signifi cantly more oft en at the fi rst situation than at the second one. Th erefore, the option I-don’t-know creates the better opportunity to obtain unbiased information. Th en, the observed relationship between the proportion of Yes versus No answers and the frequency of the I-don’t-know answers gives an additional insight into reliability of the obtained data.
Źródło:
Rocznik Kognitywistyczny; 2011, 5; 11-17
1689-927X
Pojawia się w:
Rocznik Kognitywistyczny
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Kognitywistyka w edukacji – zastosowanie metody RECITO w procesie nabywania, usprawniania i utrwalania umiejętności czytania oraz reedukacji dzieci z zaburzeniami w tym zakresie
Cognitive Science in Education – Employment of Method RECITO in Process of Acquisition Improvement and Solidification of Ability of Reading and Re-education of Child with Disturbances in This Range
Autorzy:
Mańczak, Joanna
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/637861.pdf
Data publikacji:
2011
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Jagielloński. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego
Tematy:
cognitive science
RECITO
process method
program motivation
re-education
ability of reading
Opis:
I would like to present proposal within the confines of the hereby article process method called recently RECITO, which helps process of reading. For this creation of program motivation, was noticing, that lack of ability of fluent reading can present serious barrier with apprehension in present times in conquest of desirable education. As it happens that worse, that it does not take into account majority of available on market of program fact re-education, that reading is process multimodal, which involve numerous districts in brain. And so after analyzing literature concerning problems reading, pilotage research decide carry, which had verifications of efficiencies of discussed methods on purpose. Results and short review of literature has been presented in farthest article concerning reading part.
Źródło:
Rocznik Kognitywistyczny; 2011, 5; 119-127
1689-927X
Pojawia się w:
Rocznik Kognitywistyczny
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
O ewolucyjnych źródłach niektórych muzycznych preferencji estetycznych
The Evolutionary Sources of Some Human Musical Aesthetic Preferences
Autorzy:
Podlipniak, Piotr
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/637937.pdf
Data publikacji:
2011
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Jagielloński. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego
Tematy:
musical aesthetic preferences
cognitive science
evolutionary sources
nervous system
musical skills
Opis:
Human musical aesthetic preferences differ significantly. People vary in this respect depending on culture in which they were brought up and on their individual experiences. The awareness of this differentiation was one of the reasons for which these aesthetic preferences were considered as conditioned only by culture. After cognitive science became interested in art, the aesthetic preferences have been explained by seeing the aesthetic assessment of stimuli as related to the evolutionary sources of human aesthetic tendencies. The contemporary knowledge of music processing by the nervous system and of musical skills development indicates that there are also some ubiquitous tendencies in the aesthetic assessment of music. The purpose of the current paper is to present preferences for tonal music and to explain their origin.
Źródło:
Rocznik Kognitywistyczny; 2011, 5; 167-174
1689-927X
Pojawia się w:
Rocznik Kognitywistyczny
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Rodzina współczesna wobec wirtualnej rzeczywistości - między rozrywką a uzależnieniem
Autorzy:
Gizella, Jerzy
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/527538.pdf
Data publikacji:
2011
Wydawca:
Krakowska Akademia im. Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego
Tematy:
family values
virtual reality
digital identity
persuasion
mind control
computer games
social psychology
personality disorders
behavioral disorders
cognitive science
entertainment
infotainment
cyberspace
communication
cultivation theory
advertising
propaganda
media bias
Opis:
There are two definitions of the term Virtual Reality (VR) according to the VR pioneer, Jaron Lanier. The first definition refers to the visual programming technology (especially in computer games) which uses custom designed tools (like helmets, gloves and glasses) combined with special effects in order to achieve an illusion of physical space. The second meaning of the term VR encompasses all the elements of the „alternative” reality of cyberspace in which people communicate by means of different electronic devices. As such, VR allows those who participate in these interactions to manipulate and multiply their digital selves to such an extent as to loose their actual sense of self. VR technologies are used in a variety of professional capacities such as education, medicine, engineering, architecture and so on. Some negative consequences occur primarily with the overuse of VR for entertainment purposes (such as computer games) and include personality and behavioral changes in younger, adolescent users. There are also larger cultural influences to consider. The mind of a modern user of new technologies cannot keep up with the pace of societal changes, promoting behaviors which hinder communication, mutual understanding and cooperation. VR continues to affect the emotional, behavioral and sensory aspects of the psyche. The invasive persuasion of media and advertising influences people’s habits, opinions and ethics. One of the most disturbing cultural changes is the confusion of public and private spheres, Facebook friends for family and the substitution of cyberspace for home life.
Źródło:
Państwo i Społeczeństwo; 2011, 3; 183-197
1643-8299
2451-0858
Pojawia się w:
Państwo i Społeczeństwo
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
A conceptual analysis of cognitive distraction for transit bus drivers
Autorzy:
D'Souza, K. A.
Siegfeldt, D. V.
Hollinshead, A.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/407079.pdf
Data publikacji:
2013
Wydawca:
Polska Akademia Nauk. Czytelnia Czasopism PAN
Tematy:
accident risk management
driver inattention
driver distraction
physical distraction
mental distraction
driver training
cognitive distraction
multitasking
Behavioral Science
Opis:
The purpose of this paper is to analyze cognitive distraction data to determine its impact of transit bus drivers' capability. Much of the theory and results applied in this paper are from the work of researchers working on similar projects. In order to understand cognitive distraction and how it can be mitigated, a Cognitive Distraction Model is outlined. The model was analyzed to evaluate the correlation between driver capability, and demographics and driving patterns. A model that provides an understanding about cognitive workload and driver capability could provide better psychological solutions to mitigate the number of accidents due to cognitive distraction and develop relevant driver training programs. Through additional research from the neurological and behavioral sciences, regulators could develop a better understanding of the causal factors and ways to control cognitive distraction.
Źródło:
Management and Production Engineering Review; 2013, 4, 1; 10-19
2080-8208
2082-1344
Pojawia się w:
Management and Production Engineering Review
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Assessment of Science in Special Education Schools: Teachers’ Perceptions and Practice
Autorzy:
Skribe, Dimec D.
Vlahinja, K.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/16530443.pdf
Data publikacji:
2013-12-31
Wydawca:
Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek
Tematy:
assessment
process skills
cognitive levels
science education
special education
Opis:
A shift from traditional methods of teaching science to modern and better suited to pupils can be noticed in Slovenian primary schools. They should also be followed by assessment both in regular primary schools and special education schools. The purpose of this study was to find out the perceptions of special education teachers about their own practice of science assessments and their actual practices. A questionnaire and authentic written tests were used for the research. Comparative analysis revealed considerable inconsistency between perceptions and practices. The greatest differences were found in the cognitive levels of knowledge and process skills. The research results raise teachers’ awareness and thus enable changing of their practices.
Źródło:
The New Educational Review; 2013, 34; 307-318
1732-6729
Pojawia się w:
The New Educational Review
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
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