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    Tytuł:
    Półprzewodnikowe azotkowe źródła światla - nagroda Nobla z fizyki w 2014 r. dla Isamu Akasaki, Hiroshi Amano i Shuji Nakamury
    Semiconductor nitride light sources: 2014 Nobel prize in physics to Isamu Akasaki, Hiroshi Amano and Shuji Nakamura
    Autorzy:
    Krukowski, Stanisław
    Grzegory, Izabella
    Boćkowski, Michał
    Suski, Tadeusz
    Leszczyński, Michał
    Perlin, Piotr
    Skierbiszewski, Czesław
    Porowski, Sylwester
    Powiązania:
    https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/1177398.pdf
    Data publikacji:
    2015
    Wydawca:
    Polskie Towarzystwo Przyrodników im. Kopernika
    Opis:
    Podstawy fizyczne działania półprzewodnikowych przyrządów emitujących światło, tzn. diod laserowych i elektroluminescencyjnych zostały omówione w zwięzły sposób. Historyczny rozwój badań nad zastosowaniem półprzewodnikowych źródeł światła, w tym źródeł światła czerwonego został zarysowany. Trudności i rozwój półprzewodnikowych źródeł światła w ostatnim półwieczu został omówiony. Przełomowy wkład Isamu Aksaki, Hiroshi Amano i Shuji Nakamuro w rozwój badan i technologii diod opartych o azotki metali grupy III, który doprowadził do powstania źródeł światła niebieskiego, zielonego i fioletowego w latach 90. XX w., i został uhonorowany Nagrodą Nobla z fizyki w 2014 r., został szczegółowo opisany. Dalszy rozwój dziedziny do chwili obecnej i jej perspektywy zostały zarysowane. Rola polskich ośrodków naukowych w tej dziedzinie, znacząca w skali światowej, została również lakonicznie omówiona.
    Physical foundations of semiconductor light emitting devices, i.e. laser diodes (LDs) and light emitting diodes (LEDs), and history of studies concerning application of semiconductor light sources, including sources of red light, are shortly outlined. The seminal contributions of Isamu Akasaki, Hiroshi Amano and Shuji Nakamura to the investigations and applications of the group III metal nitrides that led to emergence of blue, green and violet light sources in the last decade of XX century, honored by 2014 Nobel Prize in Physics, are presented in detail. Further developments in this area up to the present day and future perspectives, including the important role played therein by Polish research institutions, are also sketched.
    Źródło:
    Kosmos; 2015, 64, 2; 211-220
    0023-4249
    Pojawia się w:
    Kosmos
    Dostawca treści:
    Biblioteka Nauki
    Artykuł
    Tytuł:
    Systemy penitencjarne państw skandynawskich na tle polityki kryminalnej, karnej i penitencjarnej
    Autorzy:
    Płatek, Monika
    Porowski, Michał
    Rejman, Genowefa
    Powiązania:
    https://bibliotekanauki.pl/books/1705607.epub
    https://bibliotekanauki.pl/books/1705607.mobi
    https://bibliotekanauki.pl/books/1705607.pdf
    https://bibliotekanauki.pl/books/1705607.zip
    Data publikacji:
    2007
    Wydawca:
    Uniwersytet Warszawski. Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego
    Opis:
    Summary Scandinavian countries have the reputation of being the cradle of many modern penitentiary reforms. They attract the interest of international milieu of both scientist and practitioners that deal with the execution of punishment and particularly with imprisonment. It is easy to describe a system, to state the number of institutions, and staff, and to describe the nature of the programs. Yet it does not explain the nature and the essence of the system. A simple description is not enough to understand why it is the way it is. The Scandinavian countries are characterized as core examples of welfare state with a collective desire for social growth and evolution, tolerance, pluralism, respect for the law and interpersonal respect. They are perceived as countries of collective individualism, care for children, equal status of woman and man, and efforts to reintegrate those punished by the criminal law. The book is about the penitentiary system of Scandinavian countries within the legal, criminal and penitentiary policy perspective. It is about the penitentiary systems in Sweden, Denmark, Norway and Finland. Island is mentioned, but not elaborated in the way the other countries are. The goal was not to simply present the penitentiary system of each of the countries. It was rather to find out the conditions and the processes behind its relative leniency and stability when compared to Poland or other European countries. The book searches for what is common and different among these countries and tries to answer the question - is treating these penitentiary systems, as common Scandinavian ones, justified. The goal was to understand the nature of these systems and to avoid creating a new myth of the Scandinavian penitentiary paradise. Therefore the search for the driving forces behind recent prison growth, also in Scandinavian countries, is very much present in the analysis. Last but not least, it checks to what extent the Scandinavian penitentiary experiences are of value for the Polish prison system. The author was aware that neither the description of the system nor the conclusions drawn from the study are entirely objective. Coming from Poland where law, legal practice and culture is different, affect the way the author carried out and evaluated the analysis. Comparative studies are from their very nature complicated. They are oriented not on mere description but rather explanation of the process that leads to certain social effects. They are complicated also because of the lack of proper methodology for this kind of study. It required presenting the penitentiary system within the scope of the roles criminal law plays within the system of social control. Social control is often identified in Poland with criminal law. It is just one of several tools to control social behavior. It can also be controlled by civil, conciliatory, medical, educational and other measures. This study demonstrates it. Penitentiary policy is just a part of the criminal control system and Scandinavian practice proves that it is doesn’t necessarily have to be the prevailing one. This work traces the mental, cultural, political and technical roots that helped such development. It required building up a specific methodology which covers criminal law, criminal policy as well as penitentiary policy within the axiological, historical, legal and social context. Nils Christie in one of his book warned the reader: “Det går ikke å forstå norsk kriminalitet hvis man ikke også forstår det norske samfunnet” (It is impossible to understand Norwegian criminality without understanding the Norwegian society, Hvor tett et samfunn?, 1982, p. 9). This refers to other societies as well. Small numbers of inmates, fairly rare problems with overcrowding (especially in the past), well trained staff, esthetic milieu for both staff and inmates - this is the picture Scandinavian penitentiary is well known for. They are perceived as humane in comparison with the rest of the world. For the Scandinavians, however, it is not an argument. The appalling stage of penitentiary in many countries, should not unable the elimination of problems present in the Scandinavian system. The analysis of the cultural and political mechanisms responsible for the present state of the penitentiary systems were carefully conducted to avoid creating an image of a penitentiary paradise. The sense of collective conscious which was elaborated by Durkheim is expressed not only in the law but also in the history and culture of the countries. Therefore, those elements were also included in the analysis of arguments, as they help to keep the reasonable seize of penitentiary and prevent out-casting inmates. The same analysis were essential to comprehend what makes the system tremble and what increases the number of inmates and the level of condemnation. The book has 12 chapters. It starts with the presentation of the nature of the book, it’s methodology and it’s structure. The four countries, as well as major definitions, are introduced. In Scandinavian countries the term “kriminalpolitik” includes the legislative process of deciding which behaviors are to be punished, as well as the activity of the criminal court and penitentiary practice. In Poland, there are three different concepts introduced by Emil Rappaport. The distinction is between legal, criminal, and penitentiary policy. This division is used in the book for it allowed to analyze the historical and contemporary process of establishing the concept of crime and punishment. Penitentiary policy depends also on such processes as changes in the role and goals of punishment, development of new penal measures, as well as criminalization and decriminalization. There are several crucial observations described from the beginning of this work. There is no relation between the number of crime and number of inmates. Michel Foucault’s and Nils Christie’s analysis are used to support the political dimension of the legal and criminal policy. Most people break the law, but just special few are delegated to serve the prison system. Well elaborated in the work of Vagn Greve, Britta Kyvsgaard, Thomas Mathiesen and others proves - what is often neglected elsewhere - that most inmates came from troubled milieu and face social, psychological and economical difficulties. The understanding of the above phenomena is very specific for Scandinavia. Studying the activity of Nordic institutions from the Nordic Council, via Scandinavian Research Council for Criminology up to KRUM trace the characteristics of the welfare-state societies oriented on efficacy and humanity within a system of sanctions. The Nordic cooperation on legislation, on prison-development etc explains the similarities in development and practice. It also gives good reasons to discuss the countries within the scope of one system. While it is necessary to search back in history to see the development in Norway, Denmark and in Sweden, the situation in Finland has a modern explanation. The relation between politics, culture and punishment is most noticeable with the Finnish example. It is especially interesting for Poland. There are many similarities in the history and development of the two countries. Long dependence from another country, and the shadow of communism that affected both administration and social mentality. Brutal experiences of World War II and experience of tough, rather inhumane penitentiary system still in the second half of the XXth century. All this changed in Finland, and this process is easy to follow. Keeping people in prison is costly - not only in financial, but also in humanitarian, terms. The trend present in Finland proved the power of political will, when it comes to penitentiary policy. The stunning decrease in the Finnish prison population is analyzed, based on the work of Patrik Törnudd, Tapio Lappi-Seppälä, Hanns Von Hofer and others. Technical measures are interesting, yet the most significant was the will to join the rest of Scandinavian countries and not be identified with Soviet history and policy. Culture and politics rather than dynamic and structure of criminality have an impact on criminal and penitentiary policy. The new “law and order” policy, the harsh attitude towards drug addicts and immigrants are suddenly perceived as major political problems in all four countries. This new phenomena however is not a decline of the rehabilitative ideal. This strongly distinguishes Scandinavia from other European countries and from the USA. The common goals set up for criminal policy, the common activity within criminal justice, penitentiary and criminological study are themselves a sufficient reason to write about the Scandinavian prison system. Yet, at the same time the particular solutions show different paths over the last 50 years at least, in countries like Norway and Denmark, or Finland and Sweden, in grasping the problem of drugs, immigration, morals and law. The book brings a description of the development of criminal law in each of the countries. It is an introduction to present their penitentiary system. It is preceded by a history of the Scandinavian penitentiary system, sources of social justice and equality present among Nordic societies as well moral, political and social environment enhancing auxiliary and pragmatic role of law. Protestantism, development of civil service, and general education patterns together with legal Scandinavian philosophy is taken here into consideration. The historical and social determinants play a vital role in shaping the nature of the four elaborated systems. This part puts an emphasis on dealing with imprisonment in the stage of harm awareness. On January 11,2006 the new Council of Europe Recommendation on the European Prison Rules came into force. It was strongly based on the concept of normalization introduced into Scandinavia some years ago. The presentation of each country focuses on issues concerning the social and psychological as well as financial costs of imprisonment. Scandinavian prisons are far from being perfect, but stressing the harm prisons cause is a necessary step in shaping the policy and practice which minimize it. The relation between prison and probation is very interesting for Polish practice. Its presence is a necessary condition for the system to work. Civil, law abiding, well trained, and well treated penitentiary and probation services, are a condition sine qua non for combining prison and probation services. This would not work-out well with the para-military penitentiary system - where overpopulation is a constant issue and law is treated as technical term, a union between prison staff and probation officers might bring more harm than help. This is one of the several examples discussed as a limit when considering the possible replication of Scandinavian patterns in Poland. The practice set up for conditional release, treating the law seriously, and equal care for inmates and staff are evaluated as positive examples and are strongly suggested to be followed. The closing chapter is not simply a summary. The core issues of the relative Scandinavian leniency, relative stability and recent changes in the penitentiary practice are discussed within a comparative prospect of society self-perception. The level of trust for the government, the level of happiness, and level of life quality are just a few examples used to present a broader platform to analyze the effects that the organization of penitentiary system has on society. It is once more proved that prison not only reflects the basic structure of a society, it also shapes it. The Scandinavian countries went through specific evolution from retribution, through treatment ideology, neo-classic just desert up to the neo-positivist attitude with aims at treating imprisonment as the last resort. The process was strongly determined by the concept of solidarity and common social responsibility. It might not be that strong at present yet in Poland it should help reminding the ideas practiced in early 80-ties, when the country faced prison reform. The Scandinavian analysis helps to understand how to reach positive changes and also how to keep them. It is not easy, yet the understanding of the vogue relation between criminality and imprisonment is an important component of that very process. Translated Monika Platek
    Książka prezentuje systemy Danii, Finlandii, Norwegii i Szwecji. Autorka stara się dociec: Co jest przyczyną i co tłumaczy fenomen skandynawskiej względnej łagodności oraz stabilności systemu penitencjarnego? Czy można mówić o jednolitym systemie skandynawskim? Publikacja bada również powody wzrostu populacji więziennej w Skandynawii oraz to, co z penitencjarnych doświadczeń skandynawskich wynika dla nas w Polsce, na progu nowego tysiąclecia. Czy doświadczenia skandynawskie mogą mieć charakter uniwersalny i jakie warunki muszą być spełnione, żeby można je było skutecznie replikować. Książka sięga też do kulturowych korzeni (wspólnej tradycji historycznej, wzajemnej zależności i długich okresów współpracy) i tam poszukuje wyjaśnienia stosunków panujących w polityce karnej tych państw. Zauważa, że to "kapitał społeczny" - istnienie więzi społecznych, poczucie wspólnoty, wyznawanie wspólnych wartości - w dużym stopniu pozwala na internalizacje norm i tym samym przeciwdziała naruszaniu prawa.
    Dostawca treści:
    Biblioteka Nauki
    Książka
    Tytuł:
    Granice reformy więziennictwa
    The Limits of Prison Reform
    Autorzy:
    Porowski, Michał
    Rzepliński, Andrzej
    Powiązania:
    https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/699237.pdf
    Data publikacji:
    1986
    Wydawca:
    Polska Akademia Nauk. Instytut Nauk Prawnych PAN
    Tematy:
    instytucje społeczne
    reforma więzienia
    polityka więzienna
    stereotyp
    granice
    neoklasycyzm
    social institutions
    prison reform
    Prison Policy
    stereotype
    borders
    neoclassicism
    Opis:
    A reform consists in the intention to introduce changes into a given system of social institutions which would not be aimed at its radical and qualitative transformation but would resolve themselves into improvement or rationalization. The reformatory thought may be inspired by conservative, liberal or radical attitudes which determine the motives, limits and profoundness of the changes. In the present paper, a conception of a reform of the prison system has been presented which would assimilate its contents to the substance of punishment, i.e. retribution in its humanistic interpretation and the values that come to the foreground of the axiological system of our times. These values are included in the notion of the dignity of a human being which results from treating man as the aim in itself and a being endowed with free will. The authors have assumed in the present paper that when reforming the prison system, all of its elements can be manipulated with the following exceptions: deprivation of the isolated person of his right to decide about his place of abode, and his duty to stay in a place determined by the authority which executes the penalty. Therefore, the following things can be changed: the ideological grounds of the system, i.e. its aims, functions and the role it plays in the global system of interests; external organization of the system, i.e. its -management regulation of interactions between the isolated and the isolating communities, organization the staff; material equipment of the system, i.e. buildings and their architecture, the arrangements concerning security, economy nd production. The authors oppose the conception which has been called here the reason of humanized retribution to the two contemporary variants of the prison policy. Ideologists of the first of them (the variant oriented at a psycho-social corrective treatment) model prisons having in view the future law abiding functioning of the offender in the society. An individual is here but a ,.human material" which is to undergo transformation as a result of the application of adequate measures. Ideologists of the second variant (one oriented at education through work) emphasize the social needs not connected with the prisoner who is treated as a quantum of man power that can be used. Retribution is inherent in the prison policy irrespective of the intention of its promotors and executors. After all it is one of the elements of the execution of penalty. The moral value of retribution resulting from a just punishment was recognized in the philosophy and dogmatic assumptions of pastoral theology. Recognizing punishment to be the offender’s personal right, we at the same time recognize his dignity due to a rational person. Therefore, punishment based on retribution certifying to the subjectivity and dignity of an human being, is tantamount to the humane attitude. To render possible the realization of the reason of humanized retribution, definite conditions have to emerge. These are: consistently grounding the punishment on the responsibility for the commission of a given act: this excludes the use of the perpetrator’s way of life, state or personality, and opinions as the essential criteria for meeting out punishment, and leads to the imposition of prison sentences for the most serious crimes only; stopping both the building of new prisons an the artificial increase of the capacity of the existing ones; overcoming the barrier of functional connections between prisons and state enterprises which use the immates cheap and first of all easily disposable man power. The reform of the prison policy inspired by the reason of humanized retribution can be expressed in three fundamental postulates which are: (i) the principle of the rule of law and that of mutual respect for the legel status of the prison staff and of the inmates; (ii) the principle of respect for the prisoners dignity; (iii) and the principle of minimalization of isolation of the prison system and of increasing its integration with the outside social environment. The rule of law which is the content of the first principle is the order not only of an absolute observance of the law, but also of the consistence of its contents with the achievements of civilization and morals of the global , society. Thus, on the one hand, the importance of the law as an instrument to eliminate arbitrariness of decisions from the process of execution of penalty is emphasized here, and, on the other hand, the postulate acquires justification that the prisoners' rights - instead of resulting from discretional decisions - be the articulation of the socially accepted values and their realization in accordance with the spirit of times. Thus the prisoners rights become the content and at the same time the safeguard of an humane attitude towards him.  The recognition of the rule of law as the central principle of the prison policy is justified by the very reason of humanized retribution. According to this principle. the process of execution of the deprivation o [ liberty is treated as a sui generis legal relationship between the prison management and the prisoner. the safeguard o[ which is the principle of mutual respect for the both parties legal positions. The construction of a definite catalogue of these rights is the task of the legislation. In any case, the prisoner retains his rights to the extent appropriate of any citizen in barracks. The only thing the penal isolation eliminates is the personal participation in the outside social life. A specific prison right is the inmates' right to use the period of isolation in the way that would be most helpful for their evelopment, which means, among other things the opportunity to participate in treatment alternatives offerred to them, or the conditions for individual development. For the principle of mutual respect of legal statuses to be realized, the prisoner should be equipped with effective means of execution of his rights. This is dictated by two reasons. Firstly, the conception of the process of execution of the penalty of deprivation of liberty as a legal relationship between the prisoner and the management naturally brings the normative factor. to the fore; secondly, prison-as an extremely dense social environment-releases tensions increased by the particural susceptibility to aggression on the part of both of its communities. The prison policy is a negation of the principle of respect for the prisoner’s human dignity in the present interpretation, its contents being adjusted to the Spartan attitude towards men in which an human being has an instrumental Value only. Therefore, he may be modeled after a freely chosen pattern by means of open repression, behavioural conditioning and other kinds of manipulation. On the other hand, the opposite Socratean model of influencing the individual is consistent with the authors assumptions. According to this model, the principal means of the so-called prisoners resocialization are discussed in the paper (work, education, access to culture, as well as punishment and award), in the effort to define them in such a way as never to disturb the ideological contents of the Socratean attitude towards the development of the individual. Prisons are social institutions for which everybody is responsible, though to a varying degree. This gives significance to the principle of minimum of isolation and integration of the prison with the outside social milieu. In this connection, a detailed discussion has been included in the present paper of the forms of isolation (internal, external), the effects of its accomplishment (material and social), and the effects of alienation of penal institutions ( totalitarization, prisonization, exlusion of social control, strict control of contacts with the outside social milieu). To sum up, the approach presented in the present paper is aimed at overcoming the stereotype that consist in a critical analysis of the separate  elements of the prison system without a comprehensive appraisal of its theoretical and practical values. This stereotype does nothing but consolidate the system the value of which has never been verified, and results in the prison policy becoming more and more eclectic.
    Źródło:
    Archiwum Kryminologii; 1986, XIII; 141-172
    0066-6890
    2719-4280
    Pojawia się w:
    Archiwum Kryminologii
    Dostawca treści:
    Biblioteka Nauki
    Artykuł
    Tytuł:
    Recenzja: Paweł Kobes, Funkcje kurateli w polityce kryminalnej, Difin, Warszawa 2019, ss. 378
    Review: Paweł Kobes, Funkcje kurateli w polityce kryminalnej, Warszawa: Difin, 2019, ss. 378
    Autorzy:
    Porowski, Michał
    Powiązania:
    https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/498855.pdf
    Data publikacji:
    2019
    Wydawca:
    Fundacja im. Aliny i Leszka Allerhandów
    Tematy:
    kurator
    polityka kryminalna
    probation officer
    criminal policy
    Opis:
    Tekst stanowi recenzję książki Pawła Kobesa dotyczącej kurateli i jej miejsca w polityce kryminalnej.
    This is a review of Paweł Kobes’s book on the legal guardianship and its place in the criminal policy.
    Źródło:
    Głos Prawa. Przegląd Prawniczy Allerhanda; 2019, 2, 1(3); 230-234
    2657-7984
    2657-800X
    Pojawia się w:
    Głos Prawa. Przegląd Prawniczy Allerhanda
    Dostawca treści:
    Biblioteka Nauki
    Artykuł
    Tytuł:
    Społeczne inicjatywy na rzecz więźniów
    Community Initiatives for Prisoners
    Autorzy:
    Porowski, Michał
    Powiązania:
    https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/698516.pdf
    Data publikacji:
    1992
    Wydawca:
    Polska Akademia Nauk. Instytut Nauk Prawnych PAN
    Tematy:
    społeczne inicjatywy
    więżniowie
    resocjalizacja
    pomoc więźniom
    community initiatives
    prisoners
    resocialization
    assistance to prisoners
    Opis:
    Assistance to persons released from prison is considered an indispensable stage of the process of carrying out the penalty of imprisonment. The authors engaged in that subject agree as to the role of postpenitentiary assistance  in reduction of relapse into crime and its connection with social readjustment of offenders. In my opinion, that approach is insufficient for a full justification of the actual sense of assistance rendered to persons on release from prison. Pragmatic researchers treat the slogan of helping prisoners as obvious and focus on the related legal and organizational problems. Lacking strict criteria of appraisal, the analysis of legal solutions resolves itself usually into approving comments and to attributing the indolent functioning of the assisting agencies to sluggishness of the actual care providers. The suggested conceptions of improvement of the  after-care resolve themselves into improvement of the existing institutional and legal solutions and corrections of their model which remains the same all the time despite the fact that a succession of its versions have proved inefficient in practice. Taking the subject up, I adopted an entirely different approach and method of research. I assumed that all assistance can only be successful if those involved in it are genuinely motivated to that activity. Even if the norm „help the prisoners” is an element of the system of moral directives recognized in our culture, this fact alone by no means determines in advance the actual range and validity of that norm. Like all moral values, also this one is valid with different force, to a different  extent and has a different range for different people. For some, it is a postulate that needs to be fulfilled which they experience as a moral  obligation; for others, it is a criterion of axiological orientation. This implies the different ways of their functioning. As shown by analysis of empirical studies, the norm demanding that prisoners should be helped is not too deeply rooted in social consciousness. It has failed to win general acceptance even at the verbal level, and the readiness to fulfill it through a person’s own activity can be found but occasionally; in such cases, it is motivated situationally rather than by axi axiological experiences. The reason is probably that a moral appraisal of the object of assistance (an imprisoned offender) is transmitted to the appraisal of the duty to fulfill a norm. Instead of deciding whether help is at all necessary, we want to know if the person in need of help deserves to be helped. In so doing, we forget that all those objectively in need of help are worth being helped; we condition our decision as to rendering help upon the actualreason of a person’s helplessness, or more strictly speaking, upon  the rank on the moral scale of the acts that made that person helpless. In this situation, what becomes a signicificent factor that has a beartng on the discussed norm is the perception of un offender as a dewiant of a definite type. An offender is usually perceived through a stereotype: a specific conglomerate of simplified and mainly unfounded beliefs. Yet that very stereotype functions as a standard basing on which the actual way of conduct is chosen. Therefore, I tried to define the stereotype of an impriosoned offender that functions in social consciousness and in consciousness of professionals involved in the work with prisoners. I also tried to diagnose the psychosocial mechanism that result in the formation and consolidation of that stereotype. Which social groups and individuals tend to consider the postulate of assistance to prisoners as a norm that they themselves should follow, or at least which such groups and individuals have the strongest motivation to respond to that call? Of the many hypotheses about the origin of prosocial behaviour (and of course of helping which is a form of that behaviour), let us first consider the one which states that prosocial behaviour results from the structure of ,,ego” and the parallel observation that another person at a disadvantage is similar to oneself in some respect. That similarity may concern both the bodily and spiritual structure and all the other components of one’s self-image. Thus diagnosed, the similarity releases or at least catalyzes the readiness to prosocial behaviour. Basing on this hypothesis, it should be assumed that ex-offenders, ex-convicts, or generally speaking, persons affected by imprisonment are particularly likely to recognize that norm, and further, that the motivation to help prisoners growth with a reduced distance between the offender and the cultural circles that approximate him with respect to mentality and custom. Considering this hypothesis, we come across still another dependence: the actual condemnation of an offender depends on the degree of acceptance of the normative system which that offender has infringed. The discrepancy between values protected by law and the individual or group preferences results in a change in attitudes. A person convicted by force of a disapproved law is perceived as a victim and not an enemy. The offender thus meets with fellow-felling, and the authors and executors of the disapproved law, with resentment. This dependence, cannot be limited to the subcultural negation of law that is characteristic of criminal circles. It follows from the division of the bulk of crime into mala per se and mala prohibita. After all, stigmatization takes a different, course in the case of an obvious evil vs. one that is simply considered evil by law which cites reasons that are by no means necessarily either obvious or good, or which is directed against an interest that is not perceived in accordance with the official standpoint. Prohibitions lacking the proper axiological foundation proliferate with the instrumental treatment of penal law, reduced to the role of political tool; in such situations, all public activity of any importance whatever is usually subordinated to politics. What significantly differentiates the extent to which the norms that concern helping others are perceived as valid are the emotional and social bonds (e.g. fomily ties). From the psychological viewpoint, they constitute a particularly active and natural stimulator of motivations, one that defines the actual circle of the most involve addressees of the norn. In this case, the one who helps is not only personally interested in the fates of the one who gets help, but also acts for his own good  rendering that help. The social situation resulting from imprisonment of a family member gives rise to special problems in the legal, economic and social sphere. Quite obviously, the other members of that family should be allowed to participate in the solution of those problems which  are also their own. We have therefore distinguished the groups that are willing, as can be expected, to adopt the norm of helping prisoners and to act accordingly. Of course, we deal here with a selective range of that norm’s validity which is subject to a double limitation: not everybody is willing to help prisoners, and that readiness does not concern all prisoners. This follows from the contents of the discussed hypothesis which after all assumes the similarity of partners in interaction as the necessary condition of emergence of motivation. The fact that a person considers a definite behaviour his/her duty may as well result from that person’s internalization of certain moral norms or ideals that can only be fulfilled through such behaviour (the love of one’s fellow man, brotherhood, general kidness). What is released here, as opposed to the hypothesis discussed above, is a general sense of duty not related to any definite person or situation but directed at all those in need of help. The group of thus motivated person includes possible addressees of the norm helping prisoners. With ages, the social practice formed a variety of forms of orginization of those who treat assistance to prisoners as a moral norm. Concerned here are initiatives based initially on the model of charity and constituting part of the general charitable activities. In the l9th century, they developed into specialized patronage societies which in turn acquired, and preserved till the present day in the world, the status of an indispensable element of the rational prison system. The Polish model of society’s participation in the execution of the sentence of imprisonment eliminated all the above-mentioned subjects  from any activities whatever on behalf of prisoners. Finding this situation irrational, I tried to investigate its causes and to disclose the motives of those who had made it that way. Depending upon the object that serves as the system of reference for prosocial behaviour, that behaviour can be divided into allocentric and sociocentric. The allocentric behaviour is activity undertaken for reason of another person’s interests, i. e. aimed at securing the best possible functioning, protection, or development of that person. If, instead, the subject acts on behalf of an institutional or group, that is if the addressee of his/her action is a definite social arrangement, we deal with the sociocentric prosocial behaviour. This latter motivation was adopted in Poland as the basis for designing the institutional structures charged with the task of helping prisoners. Namely, after-care was inserted in that particular segment of criminal policy which is called in the legal language ,,participation of the community in crime prevention and control”. The term community used here expresses the principle of joint action. The whole means a specific kind of participation aimed at assisting the police, courts, and prison administration. As opposed to voluntary associations of those interested in helping prisoners and to patronage societies, such institutions are organized from without, follow the orders of State administration, base membership on the principle of  delegation or nomination, are organizationally included in the system of State agencies whose activities they supplement within their imposed competences, and are fully controlled by those agencies. Thus organized, the voluntary forces are used to support the machine involved in carrying out penalties; they become advocates of the so-called social interest and executors of the official State policy. The main conclusion that follows from the present study resolves itself into a postulate for a reform which would make it possible also, and perhaps in particular, for those with the allocentric motivation to become engaged in helping prisoners.
    Źródło:
    Archiwum Kryminologii; 1992, XVIII; 51-101
    0066-6890
    2719-4280
    Pojawia się w:
    Archiwum Kryminologii
    Dostawca treści:
    Biblioteka Nauki
    Artykuł
      Wyświetlanie 1-6 z 6

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