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Tytuł:
ANNOUNCED REASONS AND ANTICIPATED RESULTS OF SHARE REPURCHASE PROGRAMS – CASE OF WARSAW STOCK EXCHANGE COMPANIES
Autorzy:
Wrońska-Bukalska, Elżbieta
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/654333.pdf
Data publikacji:
2014
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Łódzki. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego
Tematy:
buy back
share repurchase
reasons
theories of share repurchase
Opis:
The article aims to present the meaning of the share repurchase (also called as buy backor buy-back) programmes and to identify the reasons announced and potential results of sharerepurchase made by firms listed on the Warsaw Stock Exchange (WSE) in Poland. The mainhypothesis to be verified states that there are more reasons to repurchase shares than just cashtransfer to shareholders and there are different results than just diminishing cash holding.The problem is significant enough because share repurchase in the literature is deemed asa substitute for dividends and as another way for cash transfer to shareholdersOn carrying out the research for the selected listed companies, I found that shares might berepurchased for many different reasons and not only to signal the excessive amounts of cash heldin the corporation. Viewing by the numbers it is possible to state that transferring cash is the leastimportant reason while repurchasing shares.
Źródło:
Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Oeconomica; 2014, 2, 301
0208-6018
2353-7663
Pojawia się w:
Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Oeconomica
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Capitalization of reserves and creating market value
Autorzy:
Sajnóg, Artur
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/659111.pdf
Data publikacji:
2014
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Łódzki. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego
Tematy:
share capital
share capital increase
capitalization of reserves
market value
Opis:
The capitalization of reserves constitutes an important aspect in the enterprise management, particularly as an element of the forming the structure of equity which can increase the market value of the enterprise. Against this background the realistic estimate of the increasing the share capital of the enterprisesʼs using own funds and its impast on the development of the enterpriseʼs market value come into a relevant prominence. The fundamental purpose of this article is to assess the correlation between the volumes formed in terms of the Polish capital market. The review of the hypothesis on existence of the growth potential of the market value and its positives changes as a result of the capitalization of reserves, has been conducted on the basis of the analyzing companies quoted on the Warsaw Stock Exchange. The empirical surveys have been preceded by the theoretical deliberations upon the essence of the economic effects of the share capital increase under capitalization of reserves.
Źródło:
Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Oeconomica; 2014, 2, 300
0208-6018
2353-7663
Pojawia się w:
Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Oeconomica
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Wykupy akcji własnych jako sposób obrony przed wrogim przejęciem na przykładzie spółek notowanych na GPW w Warszawie
Autorzy:
Pieloch, Aleksandra
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/658441.pdf
Data publikacji:
2011
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Łódzki. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego
Tematy:
hostile takeovers
share repurchase
company defence
buy-back
share repurchase's motives
Opis:
The main purpose of this article is to show place, role and meaning of the public polish companies' share repurchases in a defensive action against hostile takeover. The paper is divided into two main parts. The first one, constitutes the theoretical consideration which is scarified to hostile takeovers and share repurchases. The second part is an empirical material which is concentrated on: amount of polish companies caring out share repurchases, motives of conducting buy-backs and empirical experiences of polish entrepreneurs that used share repurchases as a method of defense against hostile takeovers.
Źródło:
Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Oeconomica; 2011, 256
0208-6018
2353-7663
Pojawia się w:
Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Oeconomica
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Funkcje i cele podwyższania kapitału zakładowego w spółkach akcyjnych
Functions and Objectives Increasing the Share Capital in Joint Stock Companies
Autorzy:
Sajnóg, Artur
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/904764.pdf
Data publikacji:
2013
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Łódzki. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego
Tematy:
share capital
increasing the share capital
joint stock company
functions the share capital
companies quoted in the Warsaw Stock Exchange
Opis:
Increasing the share capital in joint stock companies is a complex process. The multiplicity of methods for increasing the company's share capital raises the necessity to analyze the purpose and function of which is to meet this capital in the operational and strategic activities. The recapitalization of the company makes it possible to raise funds primarily for the development of its activities, and to enhance the credibility among stakeholders. The purpose of this article is to analyze the diversity of functions and objectives of the increasing share capital in the joint-stock company, in particular the economic and legal context. The empirical studies have been included in selected construction sector companies quoted in the Warsaw Stock Exchange in the period 2002–2011.
Źródło:
Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Oeconomica; 2013, 278
0208-6018
2353-7663
Pojawia się w:
Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Oeconomica
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Style aktywnego zarządzania portfelem inwestycyjnym otwartych funduszy emerytalnych
Autorzy:
Miziołek, Tomasz
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/611061.pdf
Data publikacji:
2015
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej
Tematy:
open pension funds
portfolio management
tracking error
active share
otwarte fundusze emerytalne
zarządzanie portfelem
błąd odwzorowania
active share error, active share
Opis:
Research of styles of active investment portfolio management of open pension funds in Poland showed that they are closet indexers (closet trackers). This is evidenced by very low values of active share (20,5–30,8%) and tracking error (0,48–0,56%). The consequence of such method of portfolio management may be net underperformance and relatively high management costs, inadequate to realized investment strategy.
Badanie stylów aktywnego zarządzania portfelami inwestycyjnymi przez otwarte fundusze emerytalne w Polsce wykazało, iż są one ukrytymi naśladowcami. Świadczą o tym bardzo niskie wartości wskaźnika active share (20,5–30,8%) oraz błędu odwzorowania (0,48–0,56%). Konsekwencją takiego sposobu zarządzania portfelem mogą być niższe od benchmarku stopy zwrotu (w ujęciu netto) oraz relatywnie wysokie koszty zarządzania, nieadekwatne do realizowanej strategii inwestycyjnej.
Źródło:
Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska, sectio H – Oeconomia; 2015, 49, 4
0459-9586
Pojawia się w:
Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska, sectio H – Oeconomia
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Kapitał zakładowy w spółce z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością – skuteczny instrument ochrony wierzycieli?
Share capital in a limited liability company – an effective form of creditor protection?
Autorzy:
Kotowicz, Mateusz
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/962427.pdf
Data publikacji:
2014
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu
Tematy:
share capital
amendment
creditor
protection
Opis:
This article deals with a draft bill amending the Code of Commercial Companies and the ongoing debate on the planned amendment which includes a proposal to remove a fixed minimum of share capital in limited liability companies. The most important issue under consideration in this paper is the protection of a company’s creditors. The author of the following article, referring to a number of already published statements concerning the draft bill, summarizes the ongoing discussion about the role and the functions of share capital and the proposed new instruments for strengthening creditors’ protection.
Źródło:
Adam Mickiewicz University Law Review; 2014, 3; 25-35
2450-0976
Pojawia się w:
Adam Mickiewicz University Law Review
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Labour share in the domestic income compared to different labour markets
Udział pracy w dochodzie narodowym na tle zróżnicowanych rynków pracy
Autorzy:
Szymczak, Anna
Gawrycka, Małgorzata
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/1831574.pdf
Data publikacji:
2013
Wydawca:
Politechnika Gdańska
Tematy:
economic development
globalization
labour share
Opis:
The purpose of this paper is to examine the changes in the share of labour in the domestic income in the years 1995–2010 in the Visegrád Group states, taking into account the level of development of the domestic labour markets. The study involves a review of the literature relating to the labour market issues, collecting sources and their use in the empirical part. The study used the induction method, the elements of descriptive statistics and taxonomy.
Celem niniejszej pracy jest zbadanie zmian w zakresie udziału pracy w dochodzie narodowym w latach 1995–2010 w krajach Grupy Wyszehradzkiej, biorąc pod uwagę zróżnicowanie rozwoju krajowych rynków pracy. Badanie obejmuje przegląd literatury dotyczącej zagadnień związanych z rynkiem pracy, udziału czynnika pracy w dochodzie narodowym oraz materiałów źródłowych niezbędnych do przeprowadzenia badań w części empirycznej. W badaniach zastosowano metodę indukcyjną, elementy statystyki opisowej i taksonomii.
Źródło:
Przedsiębiorstwo we współczesnej gospodarce - teoria i praktyka; 2013, 4, 7; 65-79
2084-6495
Pojawia się w:
Przedsiębiorstwo we współczesnej gospodarce - teoria i praktyka
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Share Repurchase as a Form of Payout for Shareholders
Autorzy:
Kowerski, Mieczysław
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/599568.pdf
Data publikacji:
2011
Wydawca:
Wyższa Szkoła Informatyki i Zarządzania z siedzibą w Rzeszowie
Tematy:
payout policy
share repurchase
dividend
Opis:
Share repurchase happens when a company repurchases its own shares for any purpose determined by the general meeting of shareholders, including their further sale. Share repurchase is like dividend payout a form of transferring profit to shareholders. However, contrary to dividends, it is quite a new legal institution, which gained importance in developed capital markets as late as in the last twenty years of the 20th century. This article presents the development of the institution of share repurchasing and changing relations between purchasing shares and paying out dividends in developed capital markets. It also presents the legal situation concerning share repurchase in Poland, pointing out that only the regulations introduced in 2008 adjusted Polish legal solutions to those valid in developed capital markets.
Źródło:
Finansowy Kwartalnik Internetowy e-Finanse; 2011, 7, 4; 37-54
1734-039X
Pojawia się w:
Finansowy Kwartalnik Internetowy e-Finanse
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Changes within permanent grasslands used for agriculture in the West Pomeranian Voivodship
Autorzy:
Kitczak, Teodor
Podlasiński, Marek
Jarnuszewski, Grzegorz
Malinowski, Ryszard
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/28411644.pdf
Data publikacji:
2023
Wydawca:
Instytut Technologiczno-Przyrodniczy
Tematy:
agricultural land
decrease in permanent grasslands share
grasslands share
land use changes
transformation of grasslands
Opis:
The study of changes in grassland was conducted on the territory of individual counties of the West Pomeranian Voivodship. Based on data collected in the Valorisation of the Agricultural Production Space of Poland and spatial data (an electronic 1:5000 soil and agricultural map) the basic information on the use of agricultural land in the 70s of the 20th century. Changes in use over time were analysed based on data the Statistics Poland (Pol.: Główny Urząd Statystyczny - GUS), General Geographic Database and The Agency for Restructuring and Modernisation of Agriculture Crop Register (Pol.: Agencja Restrukturyzacji i Modernizacji Rolnictwa - ARiMR). The studies showed that in the West Pomeranian Voivodship, a successive decrease in the share of permanent grasslands (0.9%) and arable lands (1.4%) is observed. There is a spatial variation in the share of permanent grassland in the province’s counties, with a distinction between northern and southern counties. The main direction of change in grassland area is arable land, which applies to counties with the highest share of permanent grassland (PG) and counties with a high share of the best soils and forest direction. Land quality was the main factor determining the direction of grassland changes, with the best PG converted to arable land or for investment purposes. In contrast, the weakest were converted to forestry or spontaneously wooded through abandonment. The main reasons for changes in grassland areas in the West Pomeranian Voivodship were: conversion of use to arable land, afforestation of grasslands, land use for urban planning purposes, leaving land fallow and conversion for constructing fishponds.
Źródło:
Journal of Water and Land Development; 2023, 59; 108--117
1429-7426
2083-4535
Pojawia się w:
Journal of Water and Land Development
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
The dividend policy of companies listed on the Warsaw Stock Exchange
Autorzy:
Bogołębska, Justyna
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/947629.pdf
Data publikacji:
2019
Wydawca:
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wrocławiu
Tematy:
dividend policy
share price
investment decision
Opis:
Dividend policy is created and formulated by companies. For this reason, the focus of the analysis is on the message conveyed by the information on the dividend payout, the relationship between the dividend and financial indicators, the continuity of the payout and the amount of the dividend itself. Decisions on the dividend payment include two basic issues: what portion of profits should be paid out over a certain period of time and whether the company should maintain a steady and stable growth rate. If a steady and stable growth rate is maintained, then the level of earnings will increase from year to year. This phenomenon is confirmed by the growing number of companies paying dividends. The purpose of the article is to indicate significant differences in stock prices before the dividend payment and after the dividend payment, and to indicate significant differences in stock prices before the announcement of the dividend right and after the announcement of the dividend right.
Źródło:
Financial Sciences. Nauki o Finansach; 2019, 24, 2; 17-27
2080-5993
2449-9811
Pojawia się w:
Financial Sciences. Nauki o Finansach
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Expectations of older workers regarding their exit from the labour market and its realization
Autorzy:
Pertold, Filip
Federičová, Miroslava
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/2076899.pdf
Data publikacji:
2022-07-13
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Warszawski. Wydział Nauk Ekonomicznych
Tematy:
labour supply
expectations
retirement age
SHARE
Opis:
The objective of the paper is to analyse the labour market behaviour of older workers, specifically cross-country differences in expectations regarding the exit from the labour market and subsequent realization. Using longitudinal Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) data and econometric analysis, we provide an international comparison of the situation of older workers in the Czech Republic with the other countries of Europe. The data show that although expectations about work activity at the age of 63 are quite similar in the Czech Republic from an international perspective, the work activity realized differs significantly between the Czech Republic and other countries. Our principal finding is that the Czech Republic has a high rate of unexpected retirements compared to all other European countries included in this analysis, even if we control for the socioeconomic background of respondents. The econometric analyses further show that up to about one-third of this difference can be explained by the lower retirement age set by the institutional environment in the Czech Republic, which is anticipated by employees at preretirement age. Conversely, the health status of older workers, and even the different allocation of employees to physically demanding occupations, does not have a significant impact on these cross-country differences in unexpected retirements.
Źródło:
Central European Economic Journal; 2022, 9, 56; 93-112
2543-6821
Pojawia się w:
Central European Economic Journal
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Jednoczesne obniżenie i podwyższenie kapitału zakładowego – przyczyny i skutki
Autorzy:
Wrońska-Bukalska, Elżbieta
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/611157.pdf
Data publikacji:
2015
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej
Tematy:
share capital functions
raising capital
decrease in share capital
kapitał zakładowy
podwyższenie kapitału zakładowego
obniżenie kapitału zakładowego
Opis:
Share capital is the basis of corporation. It can be increased in the time of development and decreased in the time of activity contracting. But the simultaneous decrease and increase of the share capital serves different aims and allows to meet different needs. The aim of this paper is to identify the reasons and the results of simultaneous decrease and increase of the share capital. The sample contains 20 companies. The analysis covers the period 2010–2014. The most common ways of simultaneous decrease and increase of share capital are the following: a) the decrease in the face value of the share and issuance new shares and b) redemption of shares and issuance new shares. These ways allow to allocate the resources among the companies in the capital group, allow to change the ownership structure initiated by both owners and company, and allow to improve the financial standing of the company at the expense of the shareholders. Because the simultaneous decrease and increase of the share capital includes different results for the company (capital structure and the pool of assets) and for the shareholders (the pool of shares and the stake in the company), it is a flexible tool of achieving aims at the specific moments of running the corporation. 
Kapitał zakładowy jest elementem kapitałów własnych przedsiębiorstwa. Odgrywa on istotną rolę w finansowaniu majątku oraz wypełnia szereg innych funkcji mających znaczenie zarówno dla samego przedsiębiorstwa, jak i dla współpracujących z nim podmiotów oraz właścicieli. W literaturze przedmiotu powszechnie przyjmuje się, że kapitał zakładowy powinien być podwyższany w sytuacji intensywnego wzrostu przedsiębiorstwa, natomiast obniżany w sytuacji, gdy przedsiębiorstwo ogranicza swój zakres działania i majątku. Zaobserwowane przypadki jednoczesnego obniżenia i podwyższenia kapitału zakładowego nie mieszczą się jednak w tak ujętych potrzebach zmiany poziomu kapitału zakładowego. Jednoczesne obniżenie i podwyższenie kapitału wydaje się być nieuzasadnione z ekonomicznego punktu widzenia, szczególnie gdy kapitał jest obniżany i podwyższany o taką samą kwotę, a dodatkowo należy ponieść koszty przeprowadzenia procedury obniżenia i podwyższenia kapitału.Autorka niniejszego opracowania dostrzegła problem badawczy, który można określić jako identyfikację przyczyn oraz skutków jednoczesnego zastosowania obniżenia i podwyższenia kapitału zakładowego. Dla tak określonego celu została sformułowana hipoteza badawcza stwierdzająca, że jednoczesne obniżenie i podwyższenie kapitału zakładowego jest narzędziem realizowanych przez podmioty gospodarcze działań innych niż związane ze zwiększaniem czy zmniejszaniem zakresu działania. Dla potrzeb weryfikacji postawionej hipotezy zastosowano metodę analizy przypadków w latach 2010–2014. W okresie tym zidentyfikowano 20 przypadków jednoczesnego podwyższenia i obniżenia kapitału zakładowego.
Źródło:
Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska, sectio H – Oeconomia; 2015, 49, 4
0459-9586
Pojawia się w:
Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska, sectio H – Oeconomia
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Organization of Transport and Storage Processes in Logistics Enterprises Functioning in the Łódź Region – Study Results
Autorzy:
Mindur, Maciej
Hawlena, Joanna
Osuch, Paulina
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/503754.pdf
Data publikacji:
2017
Wydawca:
Międzynarodowa Wyższa Szkoła Logistyki i Transportu
Tematy:
air transport
strategic alliances
code-share agreements
Opis:
In the paper, the consequences of the influence of globalisation on the market of air transport are assessed. It is shown that alliances and code-share agreements constitute fundamental elements of this process. Basic stimuli and their results were analysed and the outcome shows that the aim of global corporations is integrating companies, markets and economic systems into a homogeneous system encompassing the whole world. The aim of this paper is to present the significance of alliances and code-share agreements in the development of globalisation of air transport. Critical analysis of literature and deduction were used, which allowed to formulate appropriate conclusions and recommendations. Additionally, the method of assessment of complexity of relations between air transport and socio-economic phenomena was used. The identification of processes and sources of competitive stimuli along with barriers in functioning, and the development of both, the sector of air transport and the market as a whole were also taken into consideration. The analysis of activity of subjects forming the global market of air transport services under the conditions of growing competition was made.
Źródło:
Logistics and Transport; 2017, 35, 3; 75-82
1734-2015
Pojawia się w:
Logistics and Transport
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Are Larger Banks More Efficient in the Central Eastern European Countries?
Autorzy:
Kozak, Sylwester
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/610740.pdf
Data publikacji:
2020
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej
Tematy:
CEE countries
bank
efficiency
market share
effiiency
Opis:
Theoretical background: The relationship between the size of banks and their efficiency has become an important subject for academics and policy makers in the recent decades. However, the outcomes of these studies are relatively divergent concerning the direction of this dependence.Purpose of the article: The goal of this study is to assess how the size of banks affects their efficiency in the CEE countries in the years 2005–2017. Additionally, the relationship between the market concentration and banks efficiency is checked.Research methods: The research covers 108 banks operating in eleven CEE countries. The efficiency scores are achieved through the SFA method and regressed with the individual bank characteristics and macroeconomic and sectoral variables.Main findings: The results show that growing bank’s size and market share positively affect its efficiency. Additionally, higher concentration of the banking market has a similar effect. Higher inflation and GDP per capita decrease bank profit efficiency which can indicate that banks achieve the highest efficiency gains in less prosperous countries, however, in the low inflation environment. Additionally, banks’ efficiency is boosted with the growing development of the banking sector and increasing lending to the economy. Fast-growing banks tend to be more efficient, probably due to the positive effect of the financial leverage on profits.
Theoretical background: The relationship between the size of banks and their efficiency has become an important subject for academics and policy makers in the recent decades. However, the outcomes of these studies are relatively divergent concerning the direction of this dependence.Purpose of the article: The goal of this study is to assess how the size of banks affects their efficiency in the CEE countries in the years 2005–2017. Additionally, the relationship between the market concentration and banks efficiency is checked.Research methods: The research covers 108 banks operating in eleven CEE countries. The efficiency scores are achieved through the SFA method and regressed with the individual bank characteristics and macroeconomic and sectoral variables.Main findings: The results show that growing bank’s size and market share positively affect its efficiency. Additionally, higher concentration of the banking market has a similar effect. Higher inflation and GDP per capita decrease bank profit efficiency which can indicate that banks achieve the highest efficiency gains in less prosperous countries, however, in the low inflation environment. Additionally, banks’ efficiency is boosted with the growing development of the banking sector and increasing lending to the economy. Fast-growing banks tend to be more efficient, probably due to the positive effect of the fiancial leverage on profits.
Źródło:
Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska, sectio H – Oeconomia; 2020, 54, 2
0459-9586
Pojawia się w:
Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska, sectio H – Oeconomia
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
The computer modeling of interaction between share-moulboard surface of plough and soil
Autorzy:
Ovsyanko, V.
Petrovsky, A.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/337027.pdf
Data publikacji:
2014
Wydawca:
Sieć Badawcza Łukasiewicz - Przemysłowy Instytut Maszyn Rolniczych
Tematy:
plough
share
mouldboard
soil
interaction
computer modeling
Opis:
This article presents material parameters for models used to represent soil in LS-DYNA package to numerically simulate interaction between soil and elementary working body – double-face wedges. Comparison of simulation results with the known data of natural tests is given. The modeling of interaction between soil and a share-moulboard surface of plough with the LS-DYNA software by Lagrange’s method is considered.
Źródło:
Journal of Research and Applications in Agricultural Engineering; 2014, 59, 1; 100-103
1642-686X
2719-423X
Pojawia się w:
Journal of Research and Applications in Agricultural Engineering
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł

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