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Tytuł:
ANNOUNCED REASONS AND ANTICIPATED RESULTS OF SHARE REPURCHASE PROGRAMS – CASE OF WARSAW STOCK EXCHANGE COMPANIES
Autorzy:
Wrońska-Bukalska, Elżbieta
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/654333.pdf
Data publikacji:
2014
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Łódzki. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego
Tematy:
buy back
share repurchase
reasons
theories of share repurchase
Opis:
The article aims to present the meaning of the share repurchase (also called as buy backor buy-back) programmes and to identify the reasons announced and potential results of sharerepurchase made by firms listed on the Warsaw Stock Exchange (WSE) in Poland. The mainhypothesis to be verified states that there are more reasons to repurchase shares than just cashtransfer to shareholders and there are different results than just diminishing cash holding.The problem is significant enough because share repurchase in the literature is deemed asa substitute for dividends and as another way for cash transfer to shareholdersOn carrying out the research for the selected listed companies, I found that shares might berepurchased for many different reasons and not only to signal the excessive amounts of cash heldin the corporation. Viewing by the numbers it is possible to state that transferring cash is the leastimportant reason while repurchasing shares.
Źródło:
Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Oeconomica; 2014, 2, 301
0208-6018
2353-7663
Pojawia się w:
Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Oeconomica
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Capitalization of reserves and creating market value
Autorzy:
Sajnóg, Artur
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/659111.pdf
Data publikacji:
2014
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Łódzki. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego
Tematy:
share capital
share capital increase
capitalization of reserves
market value
Opis:
The capitalization of reserves constitutes an important aspect in the enterprise management, particularly as an element of the forming the structure of equity which can increase the market value of the enterprise. Against this background the realistic estimate of the increasing the share capital of the enterprisesʼs using own funds and its impast on the development of the enterpriseʼs market value come into a relevant prominence. The fundamental purpose of this article is to assess the correlation between the volumes formed in terms of the Polish capital market. The review of the hypothesis on existence of the growth potential of the market value and its positives changes as a result of the capitalization of reserves, has been conducted on the basis of the analyzing companies quoted on the Warsaw Stock Exchange. The empirical surveys have been preceded by the theoretical deliberations upon the essence of the economic effects of the share capital increase under capitalization of reserves.
Źródło:
Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Oeconomica; 2014, 2, 300
0208-6018
2353-7663
Pojawia się w:
Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Oeconomica
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Labour share in the domestic income compared to different labour markets
Udział pracy w dochodzie narodowym na tle zróżnicowanych rynków pracy
Autorzy:
Szymczak, Anna
Gawrycka, Małgorzata
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/1831574.pdf
Data publikacji:
2013
Wydawca:
Politechnika Gdańska
Tematy:
economic development
globalization
labour share
Opis:
The purpose of this paper is to examine the changes in the share of labour in the domestic income in the years 1995–2010 in the Visegrád Group states, taking into account the level of development of the domestic labour markets. The study involves a review of the literature relating to the labour market issues, collecting sources and their use in the empirical part. The study used the induction method, the elements of descriptive statistics and taxonomy.
Celem niniejszej pracy jest zbadanie zmian w zakresie udziału pracy w dochodzie narodowym w latach 1995–2010 w krajach Grupy Wyszehradzkiej, biorąc pod uwagę zróżnicowanie rozwoju krajowych rynków pracy. Badanie obejmuje przegląd literatury dotyczącej zagadnień związanych z rynkiem pracy, udziału czynnika pracy w dochodzie narodowym oraz materiałów źródłowych niezbędnych do przeprowadzenia badań w części empirycznej. W badaniach zastosowano metodę indukcyjną, elementy statystyki opisowej i taksonomii.
Źródło:
Przedsiębiorstwo we współczesnej gospodarce - teoria i praktyka; 2013, 4, 7; 65-79
2084-6495
Pojawia się w:
Przedsiębiorstwo we współczesnej gospodarce - teoria i praktyka
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Share Repurchase as a Form of Payout for Shareholders
Autorzy:
Kowerski, Mieczysław
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/599568.pdf
Data publikacji:
2011
Wydawca:
Wyższa Szkoła Informatyki i Zarządzania z siedzibą w Rzeszowie
Tematy:
payout policy
share repurchase
dividend
Opis:
Share repurchase happens when a company repurchases its own shares for any purpose determined by the general meeting of shareholders, including their further sale. Share repurchase is like dividend payout a form of transferring profit to shareholders. However, contrary to dividends, it is quite a new legal institution, which gained importance in developed capital markets as late as in the last twenty years of the 20th century. This article presents the development of the institution of share repurchasing and changing relations between purchasing shares and paying out dividends in developed capital markets. It also presents the legal situation concerning share repurchase in Poland, pointing out that only the regulations introduced in 2008 adjusted Polish legal solutions to those valid in developed capital markets.
Źródło:
Finansowy Kwartalnik Internetowy e-Finanse; 2011, 7, 4; 37-54
1734-039X
Pojawia się w:
Finansowy Kwartalnik Internetowy e-Finanse
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Changes within permanent grasslands used for agriculture in the West Pomeranian Voivodship
Autorzy:
Kitczak, Teodor
Podlasiński, Marek
Jarnuszewski, Grzegorz
Malinowski, Ryszard
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/28411644.pdf
Data publikacji:
2023
Wydawca:
Instytut Technologiczno-Przyrodniczy
Tematy:
agricultural land
decrease in permanent grasslands share
grasslands share
land use changes
transformation of grasslands
Opis:
The study of changes in grassland was conducted on the territory of individual counties of the West Pomeranian Voivodship. Based on data collected in the Valorisation of the Agricultural Production Space of Poland and spatial data (an electronic 1:5000 soil and agricultural map) the basic information on the use of agricultural land in the 70s of the 20th century. Changes in use over time were analysed based on data the Statistics Poland (Pol.: Główny Urząd Statystyczny - GUS), General Geographic Database and The Agency for Restructuring and Modernisation of Agriculture Crop Register (Pol.: Agencja Restrukturyzacji i Modernizacji Rolnictwa - ARiMR). The studies showed that in the West Pomeranian Voivodship, a successive decrease in the share of permanent grasslands (0.9%) and arable lands (1.4%) is observed. There is a spatial variation in the share of permanent grassland in the province’s counties, with a distinction between northern and southern counties. The main direction of change in grassland area is arable land, which applies to counties with the highest share of permanent grassland (PG) and counties with a high share of the best soils and forest direction. Land quality was the main factor determining the direction of grassland changes, with the best PG converted to arable land or for investment purposes. In contrast, the weakest were converted to forestry or spontaneously wooded through abandonment. The main reasons for changes in grassland areas in the West Pomeranian Voivodship were: conversion of use to arable land, afforestation of grasslands, land use for urban planning purposes, leaving land fallow and conversion for constructing fishponds.
Źródło:
Journal of Water and Land Development; 2023, 59; 108--117
1429-7426
2083-4535
Pojawia się w:
Journal of Water and Land Development
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
The dividend policy of companies listed on the Warsaw Stock Exchange
Autorzy:
Bogołębska, Justyna
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/947629.pdf
Data publikacji:
2019
Wydawca:
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wrocławiu
Tematy:
dividend policy
share price
investment decision
Opis:
Dividend policy is created and formulated by companies. For this reason, the focus of the analysis is on the message conveyed by the information on the dividend payout, the relationship between the dividend and financial indicators, the continuity of the payout and the amount of the dividend itself. Decisions on the dividend payment include two basic issues: what portion of profits should be paid out over a certain period of time and whether the company should maintain a steady and stable growth rate. If a steady and stable growth rate is maintained, then the level of earnings will increase from year to year. This phenomenon is confirmed by the growing number of companies paying dividends. The purpose of the article is to indicate significant differences in stock prices before the dividend payment and after the dividend payment, and to indicate significant differences in stock prices before the announcement of the dividend right and after the announcement of the dividend right.
Źródło:
Financial Sciences. Nauki o Finansach; 2019, 24, 2; 17-27
2080-5993
2449-9811
Pojawia się w:
Financial Sciences. Nauki o Finansach
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Expectations of older workers regarding their exit from the labour market and its realization
Autorzy:
Pertold, Filip
Federičová, Miroslava
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/2076899.pdf
Data publikacji:
2022-07-13
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Warszawski. Wydział Nauk Ekonomicznych
Tematy:
labour supply
expectations
retirement age
SHARE
Opis:
The objective of the paper is to analyse the labour market behaviour of older workers, specifically cross-country differences in expectations regarding the exit from the labour market and subsequent realization. Using longitudinal Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) data and econometric analysis, we provide an international comparison of the situation of older workers in the Czech Republic with the other countries of Europe. The data show that although expectations about work activity at the age of 63 are quite similar in the Czech Republic from an international perspective, the work activity realized differs significantly between the Czech Republic and other countries. Our principal finding is that the Czech Republic has a high rate of unexpected retirements compared to all other European countries included in this analysis, even if we control for the socioeconomic background of respondents. The econometric analyses further show that up to about one-third of this difference can be explained by the lower retirement age set by the institutional environment in the Czech Republic, which is anticipated by employees at preretirement age. Conversely, the health status of older workers, and even the different allocation of employees to physically demanding occupations, does not have a significant impact on these cross-country differences in unexpected retirements.
Źródło:
Central European Economic Journal; 2022, 9, 56; 93-112
2543-6821
Pojawia się w:
Central European Economic Journal
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
SIGNALING HYPOTHESES OF SHARE REPURCHASE – LIFE CYCLE APPROACH. THE CASE OF POLISH LISTED COMPANIES
Autorzy:
Kazmierska-Jozwiak, Bogna
Wronska-Bukalska, Elżbieta
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/517401.pdf
Data publikacji:
2017
Wydawca:
Instytut Badań Gospodarczych
Tematy:
share repurchase
signaling hypotheses
business life cycle
Opis:
Research background: Payout policy has attracted a great deal of research, how-ever it still has not been satisfactorily explained why corporations repurchase their shares. The most popular explanation for share repurchases is their signaling power. An alternative explanation for share repurchases is related to free cash flow. We assume that both theories are not competitive, due to the fact that the motives for share repurchases may differ depending on the firm’s life cycle stage. Purpose of the article: The aim of the paper is to test the hypotheses that companies in growth stage are more prone to repurchase their shares due to the their undervaluation. Methods: Our analysis focuses on 116 repurchase on WSE and 47 repurchase on NewCon-nect in Poland during the period 2004–2016 to test the hypothesis. We assume that companies listed on WSE are in their mature stage while listed on NewConnect are in the growth stage. We use market value to book the value ratio (M/BV) and the relation of M/BV ratio for the repurchasing company to the M/BV ratio for the whole market at the date of implementing share repurchase program as a proxies for firm valuation. Findings & Value added: Our study does not confirm that repurchased companies at a growth stage are more undervalued than repurchased companies at a mature stage (at statistically significant level), however there are more repurchased companies at a growth stage with lower M/BV value than repurchase companies in mature stage. Adding corporate life cycle theory into the study, our result can contribute to the literature by more distinctly understanding the motivation of share repurchases. The results might be helpful for companies to determine their financial policies and for investors to determine their investment decisions.
Źródło:
Equilibrium. Quarterly Journal of Economics and Economic Policy; 2017, 12, 2; 245-257
1689-765X
2353-3293
Pojawia się w:
Equilibrium. Quarterly Journal of Economics and Economic Policy
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Organization of Transport and Storage Processes in Logistics Enterprises Functioning in the Łódź Region – Study Results
Autorzy:
Mindur, Maciej
Hawlena, Joanna
Osuch, Paulina
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/503754.pdf
Data publikacji:
2017
Wydawca:
Międzynarodowa Wyższa Szkoła Logistyki i Transportu
Tematy:
air transport
strategic alliances
code-share agreements
Opis:
In the paper, the consequences of the influence of globalisation on the market of air transport are assessed. It is shown that alliances and code-share agreements constitute fundamental elements of this process. Basic stimuli and their results were analysed and the outcome shows that the aim of global corporations is integrating companies, markets and economic systems into a homogeneous system encompassing the whole world. The aim of this paper is to present the significance of alliances and code-share agreements in the development of globalisation of air transport. Critical analysis of literature and deduction were used, which allowed to formulate appropriate conclusions and recommendations. Additionally, the method of assessment of complexity of relations between air transport and socio-economic phenomena was used. The identification of processes and sources of competitive stimuli along with barriers in functioning, and the development of both, the sector of air transport and the market as a whole were also taken into consideration. The analysis of activity of subjects forming the global market of air transport services under the conditions of growing competition was made.
Źródło:
Logistics and Transport; 2017, 35, 3; 75-82
1734-2015
Pojawia się w:
Logistics and Transport
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Are Larger Banks More Efficient in the Central Eastern European Countries?
Autorzy:
Kozak, Sylwester
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/610740.pdf
Data publikacji:
2020
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej
Tematy:
CEE countries
bank
efficiency
market share
effiiency
Opis:
Theoretical background: The relationship between the size of banks and their efficiency has become an important subject for academics and policy makers in the recent decades. However, the outcomes of these studies are relatively divergent concerning the direction of this dependence.Purpose of the article: The goal of this study is to assess how the size of banks affects their efficiency in the CEE countries in the years 2005–2017. Additionally, the relationship between the market concentration and banks efficiency is checked.Research methods: The research covers 108 banks operating in eleven CEE countries. The efficiency scores are achieved through the SFA method and regressed with the individual bank characteristics and macroeconomic and sectoral variables.Main findings: The results show that growing bank’s size and market share positively affect its efficiency. Additionally, higher concentration of the banking market has a similar effect. Higher inflation and GDP per capita decrease bank profit efficiency which can indicate that banks achieve the highest efficiency gains in less prosperous countries, however, in the low inflation environment. Additionally, banks’ efficiency is boosted with the growing development of the banking sector and increasing lending to the economy. Fast-growing banks tend to be more efficient, probably due to the positive effect of the financial leverage on profits.
Theoretical background: The relationship between the size of banks and their efficiency has become an important subject for academics and policy makers in the recent decades. However, the outcomes of these studies are relatively divergent concerning the direction of this dependence.Purpose of the article: The goal of this study is to assess how the size of banks affects their efficiency in the CEE countries in the years 2005–2017. Additionally, the relationship between the market concentration and banks efficiency is checked.Research methods: The research covers 108 banks operating in eleven CEE countries. The efficiency scores are achieved through the SFA method and regressed with the individual bank characteristics and macroeconomic and sectoral variables.Main findings: The results show that growing bank’s size and market share positively affect its efficiency. Additionally, higher concentration of the banking market has a similar effect. Higher inflation and GDP per capita decrease bank profit efficiency which can indicate that banks achieve the highest efficiency gains in less prosperous countries, however, in the low inflation environment. Additionally, banks’ efficiency is boosted with the growing development of the banking sector and increasing lending to the economy. Fast-growing banks tend to be more efficient, probably due to the positive effect of the fiancial leverage on profits.
Źródło:
Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska, sectio H – Oeconomia; 2020, 54, 2
0459-9586
Pojawia się w:
Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska, sectio H – Oeconomia
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Accounting manipulations related to financial assets
Autorzy:
Kutera, Małgorzata
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/419920.pdf
Data publikacji:
2018
Wydawca:
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wrocławiu
Tematy:
accounting manipulations
creative accounting
financial assets
share pricing
Opis:
The main purpose of this paper is to present the types and consequences of accounting manipulations concerning financial assets, mainly in the context of their impact on the financial results presented by enterprises. The research methodology is based on a critical analysis of the current legal solutions and case studies. Three different entities audited by the author have been selected to illustrate the most frequently used techniques of accounting manipulations. These relate to the pricing and presentation of blocks of shares listed on the stock exchange as well as shares not traded on a regulated market in the financial statements. The research results unambiguously confirm that the current wording of the provisions of the accounting balance sheet law in this regard leave a rather large degree of freedom in their interpretation. Qualified accountants skilfully use these legal gaps to a significant extent to paint a better picture of the enterprise.
Źródło:
Nauki o Zarządzaniu; 2018, vol. 23 no. 3; 23-29
2080-6000
Pojawia się w:
Nauki o Zarządzaniu
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Reasons behind changes in the share of labour in national income in the Polish economy: Selected aspects
Autorzy:
Gawrycka, Małgorzata
Szymczak, Anna
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/522288.pdf
Data publikacji:
2019
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny w Katowicach
Tematy:
Average salary
Employment structure
Labour share
National economy
Opis:
Aim/purpose – The aim of this paper is to examine the impact of structural changes taking place in the Polish economy on the share of labour in national income. Design/methodology/approach – The scope of this study includes a review of the literature dedicated to the issue and an empirical analysis of data available on this topic. The study uses elements of descriptive statistics and the method of induction. Findings – The conducted analysis shows that in the years 2005-2016, a relation contrary to that reported by de Serres, Scarpetta, & de la Maisonneuve (2002), concerning shifts of employee groups between sectors of the national economy, prevailed in Poland. No research results on the impact of the decrease in the share of self-employed on the decrease in the share of labour in the national income have been confirmed. At the same time, the effect of changes in the relation between employee remuneration and the added value, resulting from their transition between sectors of the national economy, was positively verified. Research implications/limitations – The results related to changes in the share of self- -employed in the national economy should be treated with caution, as there are also economically inactive entities listed in the Central Statistical Office (GUS) register. Originality/value/contribution – To date, in Poland comprehensive research into the influence of structural changes on the share of labour in national income has not been conducted.
Źródło:
Journal of Economics and Management; 2019, 36; 5-18
1732-1948
Pojawia się w:
Journal of Economics and Management
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Active Management in Polish Domestic Treasury Bond Funds
Autorzy:
Miziołek, Tomasz
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/16729010.pdf
Data publikacji:
2023
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej
Tematy:
passive investing
bond funds
active share
portfolio concentration
Opis:
Theoretical background: An increase in the interest in passive investing has been one of the most important trends on financial market over the last two decades. However, passive portfolio management is not limited to index funds and passive exchange-traded funds (ETFs). Despite the declared active approach to investing, in practice some active fund managers construct portfolios whose structure is quite similar to the index (usually a fund benchmark). Simultaneously, these funds charge relatively high fees, inadequate to the involvement in the investment process. In order to estimate the scale of this phenomenon, the activity and investment style of actively managed funds are examined. Purpose of the article: The main aim of the paper is to determine the degree of active approach to portfolio management by domestic Treasury bond funds investing in the Polish currency. Specific objectives include examining the relationship between the level of the fund’s active management and the size of the fund (assets under management) as well as the investment portfolio concentration. Research methods: In the quantitative study, the portfolio based measure of management activity, commonly used in the subject literature, was applied (adjusted to the bond fund), i.e. bond-level active share ratio. Moreover, to assess the portfolio concentration of the funds from the research sample, two measures were calculated: concentration ratio (CR5) and Herfindahl–Hirschman Index (HHI). Main findings: The results of the study have proved that a majority of the investigated domestic Treasury bond funds manage their portfolios in an active manner. Additionally, the research has shown that the funds managing larger assets, with a low degree of portfolio concentration, are characterized by relatively lower values of the active share ratio, i.e. their portfolios are relatively passively managed.
Źródło:
Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska, sectio H – Oeconomia; 2023, 57, 1; 137-153
0459-9586
2449-8513
Pojawia się w:
Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska, sectio H – Oeconomia
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Comparative Advantage of Yarn and Weaving Industries: Evidence for Türkiye and Top Exporters
Autorzy:
Kantur, Çiğdem
Türkekul, Berna
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/24200928.pdf
Data publikacji:
2023
Wydawca:
Sieć Badawcza Łukasiewicz - Instytut Biopolimerów i Włókien Chemicznych
Tematy:
comparative advantage
convergence
market share
product mapping
rank correlation
Opis:
With the repeal of the MFA agreement, the competitive conditions in yarn and weaving industries have changed. Especially, with the cheap labour of Asian and Far Eastern countries, they have become advantageous in this unrestricted competition environment. Therefore, this study was conducted to help to identify those products where Türkiye and her competitors have comparative advantages. This study mainly focuses on analysing the complementarity and substitutability of selected countries such as Türkiye, India, China and the USA. RTA, RC, RSCA and trade specialisation (TSI) indices were used to evaluate the competitive advantage. The results showed that Türkiye’s competitiveness in cotton yarn and cotton weaving has deteriorated. However, India and China, which are the major countries in the world’s cotton production, have a positive impact on their long-term competitiveness. Moreover, for these countries there is convergence in cotton yarn and divergence in cotton fabric products.
Źródło:
Fibres & Textiles in Eastern Europe; 2023, 31, 1; 15--24
1230-3666
2300-7354
Pojawia się w:
Fibres & Textiles in Eastern Europe
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Economic consortia in the military industry
Autorzy:
Lamek, A.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/347812.pdf
Data publikacji:
2017
Wydawca:
Akademia Wojsk Lądowych imienia generała Tadeusza Kościuszki
Tematy:
consortium
tools for management support
fair share
military industry
Opis:
According to the latest media reports, military consortia are more and more frequently formed. They unite Polish arms companies around the implementation of projects of key importance for the Polish Armed Forces’ armaments. In December 2012 the Ministry of National Defense (MON) announced that over the coming 10 years the military intends to have further projects performed, that is new combat vehicles, both wheeled and tracked, developed. A consortium aims to prepare plans and submit a bid on the execution of research and development works in order to draw up a joint project and then introduce it to series production. The problem may arise on the grounds of the distribution of a profit and other goods, which are generated in the process of cooperation, and not covered by the consortium agreement. The article attempts to address the question of what tool may be useful when determining fair rules for functioning of consortia in the arms industry so as to reflect the factual distribution of consortium members.
Źródło:
Zeszyty Naukowe / Wyższa Szkoła Oficerska Wojsk Lądowych im. gen. T. Kościuszki; 2017, 1; 31-40
1731-8157
Pojawia się w:
Zeszyty Naukowe / Wyższa Szkoła Oficerska Wojsk Lądowych im. gen. T. Kościuszki
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
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