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    Wyświetlanie 1-11 z 11
    Tytuł:
    Bronze Tripartite Belt Hooks from Pomerania as Proof of Cultural Connections in the Late Pre-Roman and Roman Period
    Autorzy:
    Strobin, Anna
    Powiązania:
    https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/550994.pdf
    Data publikacji:
    2020-01-28
    Wydawca:
    Państwowe Muzeum Archeologiczne w Warszawie
    Tematy:
    bronze tripartite belt hooks
    Oksywie Culture
    Jastorf Culture
    Wielbark Culture
    Late Pre-Roman Period
    Roman Period
    Opis:
    Tripartite bronze belt hooks of type Kostrzewski III are indicators of female attire in the Late Pre-Roman Period in Pomerania. Here, belt hooks from 31 sites have been collected, all of them related to the Oksywie or Wielbark Cultures, or to the Oder Group of the Jastorf Culture. Finds from outside of Pomerania are also included as comparative objects. The most common form of such belt hooks in Pomerania was type IIIb, being in use from phase A2 of the Late Pre-Roman Period. Roughly at the same time, these belt hooks appeared in Brandenburg. Belt hooks of type IIIa are somewhat older, while belt hooks of type IIIc are younger, as they were in use from phase A3 up to phase B2 of the Roman Period. Chronology of the artefacts, indicates that Pre-Roman traditions persisted in the Roman Period, even though belt buckles had been already introduced.
    Źródło:
    Wiadomości Archeologiczne; 2020, LXX, 70; 3-42
    0043-5082
    Pojawia się w:
    Wiadomości Archeologiczne
    Dostawca treści:
    Biblioteka Nauki
    Artykuł
    Tytuł:
    Niepublikowane materiały z cmentarzyska w Żukczynie, powiat gdański (dawn. Suckschin, Kr. Danziger Höhe) w świetle archiwum Józefa Kostrzewskiego
    Unpublished Material from the Cemetery at Żukczyn, Gdańsk County (fmr. Suckschin, Kr. Danziger Höhe) in Light of Józef Kostrzewski’s Archive
    Autorzy:
    Strobin, Anna
    Powiązania:
    https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/2048843.pdf
    Data publikacji:
    2020-12-31
    Wydawca:
    Państwowe Muzeum Archeologiczne w Warszawie
    Tematy:
    Pomorze
    kultura oksywska
    kultura wielbarska
    cmentarzysko
    młodszy okres przedrzymski
    okres wpływów rzymskich
    Pomerania
    Oksywie Culture
    Wielbark Culture
    cemetery
    Late Pre-Roman Period
    Roman Period
    Opis:
    The scientific archive of Professor Józef Kostrzewski is kept in the collection of the C. Norwid Provincial and Municipal Public Library in Zielona Góra. Portfolio 13: Pomorze Gdańskie, okres lateński (Gdańsk Pomerania, La Tène Period) consists mostly of unpublished notes and sketches of artefacts, drawn by the researcher, related to archaeological discoveries at the cemeteries at Żukczyn (fmr. Gross Suckczin aka Suckschin), Gdańsk County, Pomeranian Voivodeship (cards 568–604). The site at Żukczyn was mentioned in the literature several times. The first news about discoveries in the village comes from the end of the 19th century, when a sword and two spearheads from a cremation grave (Fig. 1) were presented to the Westpreußisches Provinzial-Museum. In 1901, further metal artefacts were collected from the surface of a field (Fig. 2, 3), and Dr. Paul Kumm, museum curator, carried out rescue excavations. As a result, 20 cremation graves were discovered (Fig. 4–11); grave goods, together with stray finds, were turned over to the museum in Gdańsk. In 1945, as a result of warfare, all artefacts from Żukczyn were destroyed or lost. The information from Kostrzewski’s archive indicates that 19 cremation graves and two pit burials (graves X and XI) were discovered at Żukczyn. A total of seven brooches, including types A, J, N (Fig. 4:b.c, 7:a–c) and presumably K (Fig. 4:d) came from graves and stray finds. Swords are represented by eight specimens: five double-edged with iron scabbards (Fig. 2:a.b.d, 3:a, 4:a.b) and three single-edged (Fig. 1, 2:a, 7:c). Two ring buckles (Fig. 3:c) and two hoops found with a sword and scabbard in grave II (Fig. 4:b) should be associated with a sword-belt. Parts of a shield – bosses and their rivets – came from two graves with weapons (Fig. 4:a.b); one boss was a stray find (Fig. 2:c). Spearheads were numerous (13 specimens) (Fig. 1, 2:b.c, 3:b, 4:b, 7:c, 8:b); some of them were decorated (Fig. 1, 2:c). In three cases, they were accompanied by butts (Fig. 3:c, 4:b, 7:c). Tools and utensils included knives (Fig. 4:a.b, 7:d), razors (Fig. 7:a, 8:b), scissors (Fig. 2:d) and pliers (Fig. 2:d). Pottery was discovered in all the graves. The vast majority are vessels of the Oksywie Culture (phases A2–A3); at least two vessels, from graves VI (Fig. 5:c) and XIV (Fig. 6:c), may come already from the Roman Period. The second stage of research at the cemetery at Żukczyn took place in the 1970s. At that time, 134 graves dating from phase A2 of the Late Pre-Roman Period to phase B2/C1 of the Roman Period were discovered. The entire material and documentation of these works are stored in the Archaeological Museum in Gdańsk. Unpublished information concerning the cemetery at Żukczyn, contained in Kostrzewski’s archive, is an important source that complements our knowledge about this necropolis. The inventory numbers of artefacts contained there are also important for attempts to restore former archaeological collections of the Museum in Gdańsk. Verification of sketches of artefacts drawn by Józef Kostrzewski with drawings included in Martin Jahn’s work, Herbert Jankuhn’s scientific archive (Fig. 11) as well as with photographs of artefacts from Żukczyn (cf. Fig. 10) yields positive results. This means that in his graphic documentation, Kostrzewski took into account characteristic and important features of artefacts, which further enhances the value of this source.
    Źródło:
    Wiadomości Archeologiczne; 2020, LXXI, 71; 269-287
    0043-5082
    Pojawia się w:
    Wiadomości Archeologiczne
    Dostawca treści:
    Biblioteka Nauki
    Artykuł
    Tytuł:
    Znalezisko późnorzymskiej fibuli na wczesnośredniowiecznym grodzisku w Zbuczu koło Hajnówki – kontynuacja tradycji czy przypadkowa zguba?
    A Late Roman Fibula from the Early Medieval Hillfort in Zbucz near Hajnówka – Continuation of a Tradition or an Accidental Loss?
    Autorzy:
    Krasnodębski, Dariusz
    Mizerka, Jagoda
    Powiązania:
    https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/551151.pdf
    Data publikacji:
    2020-01-28
    Wydawca:
    Państwowe Muzeum Archeologiczne w Warszawie
    Tematy:
    okres wpływów rzymskich
    kultura wielbarska
    grodzisko wczesnośredniowieczne
    fibula
    Roman Period
    Wielbark Culture
    medieval hillfort
    Opis:
    The basin of the Upper Narew River is home to one of the most interesting features connected with the early medieval Mazovian-Ruthenian borderland – the hillfort in Zbucz (site 3, AZP 45-89/4). It consists of an earthen embankment with a height of 1 to 2.5 m and average width of up to 10 m, surrounding a flat, 80-m-diameter courtyard entered from the south (Fig. 1, 2). During five excavation seasons, 10 trial trenches were explored and a non-invasive magnetic prospection was carried out (D. Krasnodębski, W. Małkowski 2018). The results obtained indicate two phases of construction of the fortifications. The main wood-and-earth rampart, reinforced from the outside with clay, was built in the 970s, then the fortifications were partially rebuilt no later than at the end of the 10th/beginning of the 11th century. Inside the hillfort, at the foot of the rampart, there was a shallow ditch in which small fragments of burnt human and animal bones were found. Moreover, several metal objects had been purposefully placed there: a bronze bracelet, a two-piece iron bit, an iron ‘horseshoe’, a C-shaped fire-steel, and two whole clay vessels (D. Krasnodębski, H. Olczak 2019, 95–96). This unusual collection of finds seems to indicate a special, perhaps cult/religious purpose for the ditch. On the outer side of the passageway leading to the hillfort, at a depth of about 0.7 m below the surface, a fragment of pavement (layer 234) formed by loosely distributed small stones embedded in clay was exposed directly on the virgin soil (Fig. 3–5). It is impossible to determine whether this pavement was located only within the gateway (meaning it would have to have been built during the construction of the rampart) or extended beyond it (thus being older than the hillfort). An incomplete fibula of group VI (Fig. 6), type A.161–162 (O. Almgren 1923, 77, pl. VII:161.162), with a narrow returned foot and a flat-convex section of the bow of 4.4 cm in length was found in this layer. Brooches type A.161–162 are found relatively frequently at Wielbark Culture sites in the Upper Narew and Middle Bug River basins. They are dated to the Late Roman Period – from phase C1a to C2 (K. Godłowski 1974, 29; R. Wołągiewicz 1974, 145; J. Jaskanis 1996, 111; J. Andrzejowski 2001, 257). This find is the only object from the Roman Period that has been discovered at the hillfort. Therefore, it cannot be ruled out that an older cemetery or settlement, heretofore unknown, existed within a short distance of the hillfort. It should also be taken into account that the layer of stones on which the fibula was found may be the remains of a sub-barrow pavement (cf. J. Jaskanis 2012, 210). However, the lack of human bones and other artefacts from the Roman Period speaks against this interpretation. It is also possible that the pavement with the brooch is a remnant of a destroyed cult enclosure, similar to the one discovered in the Białowieża Forest in 2017 (Forestry Wilczy Jar 2, AZP 45-91/28). It consists of a small hill dating from the middle of the 3rd to the beginning of the 5th century, measuring about 17 m in diameter, and surrounded by an earthen rampart faced with stones. A layer with loosely scattered stones and burnt debris, containing fragments of ceramics and small burnt animal bones, was found on its grounds. If we consider both described places to be similar, we can assume that the ceremonial and cult role of the hillfort in Zbucz in the early Middle Ages may date back to the late Roman times.
    Źródło:
    Wiadomości Archeologiczne; 2020, LXX, 70; 219-224
    0043-5082
    Pojawia się w:
    Wiadomości Archeologiczne
    Dostawca treści:
    Biblioteka Nauki
    Artykuł
    Tytuł:
    O Gotach w gazecie – czyli znane i nieznane informacje o grobach kultury wielbarskiej z miejscowości Sławianowo w pow. złotowskim
    Goths in a Gazette – Known and Unknown Information About the Wielbark Culture Graves from Sławianowo in the County of Złotów
    Autorzy:
    Kokowski, Andrzej
    Niemirowski, Wieńczysław
    Powiązania:
    https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/2048956.pdf
    Data publikacji:
    2021-12-20
    Wydawca:
    Państwowe Muzeum Archeologiczne w Warszawie
    Tematy:
    kultura wielbarska
    Goci
    okres przedrzymski
    uzbrojenie
    prasa
    Wielbark Culture
    the Goths
    Pre-Roman Period
    weaponry
    newspapers
    Opis:
    Na podstawie analizy treści notatki zamieszczonej 9 sierpnia 1937 roku w „Oder-Zeitung“, wprowadzono do obiegu naukowe trzy nieznane dotąd odkrycia archeologiczne: grób kultury wielbarskiej z fazy B2a z miejscowości Sławianowo; skarb brązowych przedmiotów z młodszej epoki brązu z miejscowości Stare Gronowo i cmentarzysko kultury łużyckiej z miejscowości Stobno. Znaleziska z pierwszej z wymienionych miejscowości posłużyły do weryfikacji wcześniejszych dokonanych tam odkryć, często mylnie cytowanych w literaturze. Ustalono, że nie można wykluczyć, iż na terenie tej miejscowości istniały dwie nekropolie kultury wielbarskiej. Postawiono też znak zapytania przy interpretacji kulturowej pochówków inhumacyjnych odsłoniętych w roku 1907, podważając ich wielbarską interpretację. Udowodniono, że groty znalezione w Sławianowie przed rokiem 1907 nie są, jak przyjęto, elementami uzbrojenia kultury wielbarskiej i należy je datować na młodszy okres przedrzymski. W związku z tym zweryfikowano informacje na temat osadnictwa w tym okresie nad środkową Notecią (na odcinku po-między Drawą i Łobżonką), wskazując na znacznie więcej stanowisk, niż sądzi się w najnowszej literaturze (Ryc. 2). W nowym zestawieniu znalazło się 16 odkryć, które można powiązać z kulturą jastorfską, oraz cztery dalsze z dużym prawdopodobieństwem ją reprezentujące. Zestawiono również 13 stano-wisk, które mogą reprezentować aktywność osadniczą z czasów złożenia do ziemi grotów ze Sławianowa. Określenie kulturowe tych znalezisk pozostawiono, póki co, otwartym. Wykazano ponownie, że środkowy odcinek doliny Noteci jest ciągle nierozpoznaną strefą kulturową o niezwykle atrakcyjnym potencjale poznawczym, szczególnie dla czasów pomiędzy zanikiem kultury pomorskiej a momentem zasiedlenia jej przez ludność kultury wielbarskiej. Zniszczenia wojenne boleśnie dotknęły zasoby muzealne i archiwa przechowujące informacje o działalności archeologów. Analizowana notatka prasowa jest potwierdzeniem dla tezy o niedocenionej wartości publikacji prasowych dla rekonstrukcji utraconej w ten sposób wiedzy nie tylko o zabytkach, ale również dla śledzenia dziejów badań archeologicznych i rozwoju dyscypliny.
    By analysing the contents of a note published in the “Oder-Zeitung” newspaper on 9 August 1937, three hitherto unknown archaeological discoveries have been introduced into scientific circulation: a Wielbark Culture grave from phase B2a from Sławianowo, a hoard of bronze objects from the Late Bronze Age from Stare Gronowo and a Lusatian Culture cemetery from Stobno. The finds from the first of the abovementioned localities were used to cross-check the earlier discoveries from the village in question, often erroneously quoted in the literature. It has been concluded that it cannot be ruled out that two Wielbark Culture cemeteries existed in this locality. A question mark was also placed over the Wielbark culture interpretation of the inhumation burials uncovered in 1907. It has been proven that the spearheads found in Sławianowo before 1907 are not, as it was assumed, elements of Wielbark Culture weaponry and should instead be dated to the Late Pre-Roman Period. Therefore, the information about settlement by the Middle Noteć River (between the rivers Drawa and Łobżonka) in that period has been re-checked, pointing to many more sites than it is believed in the latest literature (Fig. 2). The new compilation includes 16 discoveries that can be linked to the Jastorf culture, and four more that likely represent it. Also included are 13 sites that may represent settlement activity from the time when the Sławianowo spearheads were deposited. The issue of the cultural attribution of these finds has been, for the time being, left open. It has been shown once more that the central section of the Noteć Valley is still an unexplored cultural zone with an extremely attractive research potential, especially in regard to the time between the disappearance of the Pomeranian Culture and the point when it was settled by the Wielbark Culture people. The devastation of war painfully affected museum collections and archives storing information on the activities of archaeologists. The analysed press release confirms the thesis of an underestimated value of press publications, not only for reconstructing the lost knowledge about artefacts but also for tracing the history of archaeological research and the development of this discipline.
    Źródło:
    Wiadomości Archeologiczne; 2021, LXXII, 72; 145-158
    0043-5082
    Pojawia się w:
    Wiadomości Archeologiczne
    Dostawca treści:
    Biblioteka Nauki
    Artykuł
    Tytuł:
    Nowe materiały kultury wielbarskiej z Pojezierza Iławskiego – Jawty Wielkie, pow. iławski
    New materials of the Wielbark Culture in the Iława Lakeland - Jawty Wielkie, Iława County
    Autorzy:
    Baczewski, Marek
    Powiązania:
    https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/2048962.pdf
    Data publikacji:
    2021-12-20
    Wydawca:
    Państwowe Muzeum Archeologiczne w Warszawie
    Tematy:
    kultura wielbarska
    okres wpływów rzymskich
    znaleziska luźne
    kurhany
    Wielbark Culture
    Roman Period
    stray finds
    burial mounds
    Opis:
    Stanowisko w Jawtach Wielkich zostało zlokalizowane w maju 2015 roku po przekazaniu informacji przez lokalnego mieszkańca do stowarzyszenia miłośników historii. Po przeprowadzeniu poszukiwań we wskazanym miejscu odnaleziono zabytki archeologiczne. Przekazany do Muzeum Warmii i Mazur zbiór liczył 51 przedmiotów wykonanych głównie ze stopu miedzi. Jedynym wyjątkiem była żelazna brzytwa. W skład zbioru wchodzi ponadto: 25 zapinek, 11 bransolet, 5 sprzączek, 2 okucia końca pasa oraz ostroga. Pozostałą część materiału stanowią przedmioty, które ze względu na stan lub fragmentaryczność zachowania nie mogą być jednoznacznie zinterpretowane. Zabytki zostały podjęte z niewielkiej głębokości, maksymalnie dochodzącej do kilkunastu centymetrów. Niektóre z nich noszą ślady przepalenia. Widoczne na powierzchni przedmiotów są również ślady intensywnie czarnej ziemi oraz węgli. Opisywane stanowisko należy łączyć z ludnością kultury wielbarskiej. Wskazuje na to spektrum pozyskanych zabytków, które wykonane są w zdecydowanej większości ze stopów miedzi i stanowią głównie ozdoby. Zabytki datowane są od okresu wpływów rzymskich do okresu wędrówek ludów. W tym czasie obszar Pojezierza Iławskiego zajęty był przez ludność wskazanego ugrupowania kulturowego. Stanowisko było wykorzystywane jako nekropola. Świadczyć o tym mogą, wspomniane wyżej, ślady spalenizny oraz pozostałości węgli na zabytkach. W tym aspekcie interesująca wydaje się także obecność w północnej części stanowiska grupy niewielkich wzniesień o dosyć regularnej, okrągłej podstawie, które swoim kształtem i wielkością mogą przypominać nasypy kurhanowe. Najstarszym zabytkiem w zbiorze jest fibula A.III.53 będąca wyznacznikiem fazy B1b. Zapinki tego typu do tej pory nie były znane z terenów Pojezierza Iławskiego, które jest częścią tzw. strefy D osadnictwa ludności kultury wielbarskiej. Według ustaleń R. Wołągiewicza obszar ten miał zostać zasiedlony w fazie B2b, jednak na podstawie wspomnianej zapinki oczkowatej serii głównej, a także niedawno opublikowanych odkryć z Bajd, Przezmarka i Zawady, wydaje się prawdopodobne, że sporadyczna penetracja tych ziem przez ludność kultury wielbarskiej zaczęła się wcześniej, w fazie B1. Na podstawie całego zbioru zabytków można również stwierdzić, że cmentarzysko było nieprzerwanie użytkowane do wczesnego okresu wędrówek ludów. Najmłodszym przedmiotem w kolekcji jest dziobowate okucie końca pasa. Interesująco przedstawia się kwestia nasypów ziemnych o okrągłych podstawach położonych na terenie, na którym zostały odkryte zabytki. Należy rozstrzygnąć czy grupa wspomnianych obiektów jest formą naturalną czy pochodzenia antropogenicznego. Przy przyjęciu drugiego założenia pojawia się również problem ustalenia bezpośredniej atrybucji kulturowej. Analiza wykazała, że konstrukcje te najbardziej przypominają kurhany znane z cmentarzysk wielbarskich. Nie można jednak wykluczyć, że konstrukcje te zostały wzniesione przez starsze kultury archeologiczne – grupę warmińsko-mazurską kultury łużyckiej lub kulturę kurhanów zachodniobałtyjskich. Rozstrzygnięcie tego problemu mogą przynieść wyłączne weryfikacyjne badania wykopaliskowe.
    The site at Jawty Wielkie, located in the Iława Lakeland in northern Poland (Fig. 1), was discovered in May 2015. A search carried out with the use of metal detectors yielded 50 copper-alloy artefacts (including 25 brooches, 11 bracelets, five belt buckles, two strap-ends and a spur) and an iron razor (Figs. 4–9). The finds were transferred to the collection of the Museum of Warmia and Masuria in Olsztyn. Some of the artefacts bear traces of burning; on several objects, traces of intensely black earth and charcoal have been preserved. These traces, as well as the structure of the discovered artefact assemblage, indicate that the site was used as a cemetery. The vast majority of the artefacts date to the Roman Period and the early phase of the Migration Period. At that time, the area of the Iława Lakeland belonged to the so-called zone D of the Wielbark Culture settlement. The oldest confidently dated artefact is a fibula of type A.III.53 (Fig. 4:1), which is a marker of phase B1b. What is interesting is that, until now, no brooches of this type were known from the area in question. Zone D was thought to not have been settled until stage B2b, however, the aforementioned brooch as well as the recently published, similarly dated finds from Bajdy, Przezmark and Zawada (A. Cieśliński 2020) indicate that the penetration of the Iława Lakeland by the people of the Wielbark Culture began earlier, in stage B1. The youngest artefact in the assemblage is a beak-shaped strap-end (Fig. 6:32), indicating that the cemetery was (continuously?) used until the early phase of the Migration Period. While the iron razor has analogies in the material of the Oksywie Culture from the Late Pre-Roman Period, no sites of this culture are known from the vicinity of Jawty Wielkie. In the northern part of the site, there is a group of small hills with a fairly regular, round bases, which resemble barrow mounds in shape and size (Fig. 10). Although the characteristics of these “tumuli” indicate that they are most similar to the mounds known from Wielbark culture cemeteries, it cannot be ruled out that they were built earlier – in the later phases of the Bronze Age or in the Early Iron Age. It is only possible to reject their later, early medieval provenance. The issue can only be resolved via archaeological excavations.
    Źródło:
    Wiadomości Archeologiczne; 2021, LXXII, 72; 179-193
    0043-5082
    Pojawia się w:
    Wiadomości Archeologiczne
    Dostawca treści:
    Biblioteka Nauki
    Artykuł
    Tytuł:
    Faza C3 w kulturze wielbarskiej – próba wyróżnienia
    Phase C3 in Wielbark Culture – an Attempt at Definition
    Autorzy:
    Mączyńska, Magdalena
    Powiązania:
    https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/550984.pdf
    Data publikacji:
    2020-01-28
    Wydawca:
    Państwowe Muzeum Archeologiczne w Warszawie
    Tematy:
    kultura wielbarska
    późny okres wpływów rzymskich
    faza C3
    okres wędrówek ludów
    Wielbark Culture
    Late Roman Period
    phase C3
    Migration Period
    Opis:
    In Polish literature, phase C3 is usually considered jointly with phase D1. Based on new material from cemeteries explored in recent decades, an attempt has been made to distinguish phase C3 for the Wielbark Culture. An assemblage of artefacts typical of that culture has been indicated; it consists of specific types of fibulae, belt elements, combs, glass vessels, beads, and pendants, whose peak period of use falls between 310 and 370 AD. The presented proposal obviously needs to be verified based on further research and the emergence of new assemblages from the end of the Roman Period.
    Źródło:
    Wiadomości Archeologiczne; 2020, LXX, 70; 43-63
    0043-5082
    Pojawia się w:
    Wiadomości Archeologiczne
    Dostawca treści:
    Biblioteka Nauki
    Artykuł
    Tytuł:
    Głos tradycji. Cmentarzysko z okresu wpływów rzymskich w Wyszomierzu Wielkim, pow. zambrowski
    The Voice of Tradition. A Cemetery from the Roman Period at Wyszomierz Wielki, Zambrów County
    Autorzy:
    Rakowski, Tomasz
    Powiązania:
    https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/2048857.pdf
    Data publikacji:
    2020-12-31
    Wydawca:
    Państwowe Muzeum Archeologiczne w Warszawie
    Tematy:
    okres wpływów rzymskich
    kultura wielbarska
    cmentarzyska
    groby z bronią
    gry planszowe
    Roman Period
    Wielbark Culture
    cemeteries
    weapon graves
    board games
    Opis:
    The site at Wyszomierz Wielki, Zambrów County, is located on the border of the Northern Mazovian Lowland and North Podlasie Lowland in NE Poland. A cemetery from the Roman Period was situated at the edge of a vast wet meadow north-west of the village and south of a kame-moraine forming the characteristic landscape of this area – a cluster of longitudinal elevations called Czerwony Bór (Fig. 1). Rescue excavations at the site took place in 2015 during works preceding the expansion of the European route E67, the so-called Via Baltica (Fig. 2). The cemetery is interesting and unusual in many ways. It was located not on the top of the local elevation, which is common for Mazovian cemeteries from that period, but on a slope of a smaller nearby hill (Fig. 1, 3). It is also surprisingly small – 12 cremation graves, located on the NE-SW line, with a length of about 30 m, were discovered there. Some of the graves seem to be paired (features 138 and 139, 109A and 109B, 236 and 108, and 110 and 111) (Fig. 21:A). Eleven graves, including those with Almgren 41 type brooches (Fig. 4:1, 9:5.6, 10:5.6, 11:3.4, 13:1–4), one-layer combs of the Thomas AI type and antler pins (Fig. 4:3, 9:2, 10:1.9, 11:5), should be dated to phase B2/C1–C1a, i.e. the oldest horizon of the Wielbark Culture in Mazovia and Podlachia. The lack of inhumation burials is also characteristic of this initial phase, which corresponds to the historical migration of the Gothic tribes. The grave goods and results of anthropological bone analysis allow us to conclude that a man (feature 139) and women (features 109A, 111, 227 and 228, possibly also features 108 and 235) were probably buried there; feature 235 also contained the bones of a newborn, which may suggest the burial of a woman who died in childbirth. A several-year-old child was buried separately, in feature 229. The sex of the deceased from three graves (features 138, 109B and 236) cannot be determined (Fig. 21:B). The most interesting feature is the richly furnished grave of a warrior, who died at the age of about 40 (feature 110) (Fig. 5–8). Iron shield fittings, including a ritually destroyed boss with a blunt spike of type Jahn 7a and an iron grip with simple, undefined plates of type Jahn 9/Zieling V2 from the 5th and 6th group of armaments according to K. Godłowski and dated to phase B2/C1–C1a, were found in the grave. The most interesting elements of weaponry, with Scandinavian references, are a spearhead with the blade constricted in the middle, corresponding to spearheads of type 6 from a bog deposit from Illerup, Jutland, and a bent javelin head with large, asymmetrical barbs, whose curved ends point towards the socket, corresponding to type 8 of spearheads from Illerup, i.e. of the Scandinavian Simris type. In the areas north of the Baltic Sea, both of these types are dated to phase C1. Fragments of two rings made of deer antlers and delicate trough-shaped fittings made of copper alloy, probably from the edge of a decorative waist belt, are the only decorations and dress accessories found in the grave (Fig. 7:15–18). Two glass counters (Fig. 7:13.14, 15:8.9), and possibly traces of the third one (Fig. 7:10) are probably all that remains of a larger set, while a few iron fittings are most likely parts of a wooden folding game board. The ring and handle were probably used to open and close the board, while two corner fittings must have strengthened its edges (Fig. 7:7.10–12, 15:5). Similar objects, in addition to a full (?) set of counters, were found in the late Roman grave 41 from Simris in Scania, where a warrior was also buried (Fig. 16:1.2)62. Although no board hinges, as the ones known from the ‘Doctor’s grave’ from Stanway, SE England (Fig. 16:4–8), dating to the middle of the 1st century CE64, dating to the middle of the 1st century CE, were found in the grave from Wyszomierz Wielki, it seems that the two ornamental iron fittings attached with three rivets each could have fastened a leather belt that acted as such a hinge (Fig. 7:8.9, 15:4). This is supported by the shape and width of the fittings, and by the number of rivets, suggesting that they pressed against some not preserved element. Carefully bent nails of the handle, corner fittings and alleged hinges may indicate that the board formed a kind of a ‘container’ for counters when folded (Fig. 17). Fragments of an imported vessel of the terra sigillata type were also found in the grave (Fig. 8:19,15:6.7). The vessel that served as a cinerary urn (Fig. 8:20, 13:5) was wheel-made, i.e. made using a technique that was only just beginning to come into use in the lands north of the Carpathians in phase B2/C1–C1a93.95.96. The burial from feature 110 shows features characteristic of the Przeworsk Culture – primarily, the set of ritually destroyed weapons, although it should be noted that both spearheads are not typical of this culture 72.73.80. In phase B2/C1-C1a, only relicts of the settlement of the Przeworsk Culture, identified with the ‘Vandal’ peoples, were present in right-bank Mazovia, and the population of this culture had been replaced by the people of the Wielbark Culture, identified with the ‘Gothic’ tribes. It is then possible – as the other graves from this cemetery, undoubtedly attributed to the Wielbark Culture, seem to indicate – that it is a rare case of a burial with a weapon of a ‘Gothic’ warrior of this particular culture. Although Wielbark weaponry is very poorly known, it has Scandinavian references in the Late Roman Period123. The man buried in this grave, most likely a member of the local elite, must have been affiliated with an older cultural tradition. What is more, this tradition still had to be legible and acceptable for the people organising funerary rituals. Grave 110 from Wyszomierz Wielki is another of the burials from the end of the Early Roman/beginning of the Late Roman Period, combining features of the Przeworsk and Wielbark Cultures, that are being discovered more and more often in eastern Mazovia and Podlachia128–130 and constitute an important contribution to the study of the processes of cultural (and political) change that took place in Barbaricum during this turbulent period.
    Źródło:
    Wiadomości Archeologiczne; 2020, LXXI, 71; 319-353
    0043-5082
    Pojawia się w:
    Wiadomości Archeologiczne
    Dostawca treści:
    Biblioteka Nauki
    Artykuł
    Tytuł:
    Prowincjonalnorzymska zapinka Almgren 236c z Bajd w pow. iławskim – jeden z najstarszych śladów penetracji Pojezierza Iławskiego przez ludność kultury wielbarskiej
    Roman Provincial Brooch Almgren 236c from Bajdy, Iława County – One of the Oldest Traces of Penetration of the Iława Lakeland by the Wielbark Culture
    Autorzy:
    Cieśliński, Adam
    Powiązania:
    https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/2048921.pdf
    Data publikacji:
    2020-12-31
    Wydawca:
    Państwowe Muzeum Archeologiczne w Warszawie
    Tematy:
    importy rzymskie
    kultura wielbarska
    Pojezierze Iławskie
    wczesny okres wpływów rzymskich
    kontakty
    przemiany osadnicze
    Roman imports
    Wielbark Culture
    Iława Lakeland
    Early Roman Period
    contacts
    settlement changes
    Opis:
    In the collection of the Museum of Warmia and Masuria in Olsztyn, there is a Roman provincial brooch made of copper alloy (Fig. 1). It was found in the northern suburbs of Zalewo in the County of Iława, NE Poland. Administratively, the area belongs to the village of Bajdy, located about three kilometres to the north-west. The artefact represents a group of brooches with two knobs on the bow (German Doppelknopffibeln), type 236 in keeping with Oscar Almgren, variant c according to a detailed study by Jochen Garbsch. Such specimens are characterised primarily by a frame-like foot and the construction of the spring mechanism in which the chord is held in place by a relatively narrow hook. Brooches with a double knob on the bow, the so-called winged brooches (Almgren 238) and characteristic openwork belt fittings are considered to be some of the main metal elements of Norico-Pannonian female dress. Almgren 236c-variant fibulae are indeed largely concentrated in the area of Noricum and Pannonia, although they are also known from Raetia and, in smaller numbers, from the northern parts of Italy and Dalmatia. Their local manufacture is confirmed by, for example, the casting moulds and partly finished pieces found at a Noric settlement in Magdalensberg, Carinthia. Fibulae of variant Almgren 236c are also very numerous in Barbaricum and indicate contacts, mainly of a commercial nature, with Roman provinces. According to recently published compilations, specimens representing this variant were present at more than 50 sites in several distinct concentrations: in the Czech Republic, south-western Slovakia and adjacent parts of Lower Austria and Poland (Fig. 2). North of the Carpathians and the Sudetes, Almgren 236c brooches are more clearly concentrated in the territory occupied by the Przeworsk Culture in central Poland, western Lesser Poland and right-bank Mazovia. The last large area of concentration is on the Lower Vistula River, at a few sites of the Wielbark Culture. The chronology of Almgren 236c brooches in the territory of the Roman Empire covers the entire 1st century CE. Such fibulae are found in contexts from the late period of Augustus’s reign to the rule of Trajan, although most of the assemblages do not date beyond the Claudian period, i.e. the middle of the first century. Even though Almgren 236c brooches are often part of grave-goods in the area of Barbaricum, the number of precisely dated assemblages is, unfortunately, small. In the Czech Republic, these forms are considered to define stage B1b after Eduard Droberjar, corresponding in absolute chronology to 20/30–40/50 CE, or, more broadly, late phase B1 of the classical (Czech) eye brooch horizon up to 50/70 CE. In the areas north of the Carpathians and the Sudetes, Almgren 236c fibulae should also be dated to the mature stage of phase B1. According to the studies carried out so far, the northern part of the Iława Lakeland in phase B1 was part of a vast deserted area separating the territories occupied by the populations of the Wielbark Culture on the Lower Vistula and the Nogat, of the Przeworsk Culture in Northern Mazovia, of the Bogaczewo Culture in Masuria and of the Dollkeim-Kovrovo Culture in Sambia (Fig. 3). The site where the Bajdy fibula was discovered is closest to the Wielbark Culture settlement, south of the ancient bay of the Vistula Lagoon, whose remnant is the present-day Drużno Lake; it lies about 20 km by air from the Święty Gaj cemetery and the remains of a dyke in Bągart. The Almgren 236c brooch from Bajdy, together with a recently discovered and yet unpublished Almgren 18b fibula from nearby Przezmark, as well unpublished Almgren 53 fibula from Jawty Wielkie, is the oldest trace of penetration of the northern part of the Iława Lakeland by the people of the Wielbark Culture. These episodes should be dated to the phase B1, i.e. several decades before regular settlement activity of the Wielbark Culture in phase B2b, which led to the occupation of extensive areas of the Iława Lakeland, the Warmian Plain and the western edge of the Olsztyn Lakeland, reaching roughly up to the longitudinal line of the Pasłęka River.
    Źródło:
    Wiadomości Archeologiczne; 2020, LXXI, 71; 359-368
    0043-5082
    Pojawia się w:
    Wiadomości Archeologiczne
    Dostawca treści:
    Biblioteka Nauki
    Artykuł
    Tytuł:
    Produkcja późnych typów bransolet wężowatych na przykładzie znalezisk z cmentarzyska w Weklicach, stan. 7, pow. elbląski
    The Manufacture of Late Types of Shield-headed Bracelets on the Example of Finds from the Cemetery at Weklice, site 7, Elbląg County
    Autorzy:
    Natuniewicz-Sekuła, Magdalena
    Strobin, Jarosław
    Powiązania:
    https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/2048814.pdf
    Data publikacji:
    2020-12-31
    Wydawca:
    Państwowe Muzeum Archeologiczne w Warszawie
    Tematy:
    okres wpływów rzymskich
    kultura wielbarska
    cmentarzyska
    Weklice
    srebrne bransolety wężowate
    technologia
    Roman Period
    Wielbark Culture
    cemeteries
    silver shield-headed bracelets
    technology
    Opis:
    The subject of this study is the technology of manufacture of late forms of silver shield-headed bracelets. The analysis is based on the bracelets from the Wielbark Culture cemetery at Weklice, Elbląg County, in N Poland (Fig. 1–3). They correspond to Blume III or Wójcik IVB and V types, and appear in single- and double-spiral variants. They are dated to the beginning of the Late Roman Period. The majority of such bracelets come from cemeteries located along the shores of the former bay of the Vistula Lagoon, whose remnant is present-day Drużno Lake. In antiquity, richly ornamented snake-headed bracelets with regular, strap and multi-spiral bodies were a distinctive type of women’s accessories. They are known from the Hellenistic Period (Fig. 4). They were also manufactured in goldsmith’s workshops of the Roman Empire (Fig. 5–7). In Roman goldsmithing, they were in fashion in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE; interest declined at the beginning of the 3rd century. The technique used (forging), the similarity of shapes and the regularity of profiles indicate that matrices or dies (swages) were used in their manufacture. The best-known example of blacksmithing and goldsmithing tools used to make ornaments utilising this method is the deposit from Daorson (BIH), the former capital of Illyria (Z. Marić 1979). Similar technology was used to craft the Roman snake-bracelets and snake-rings from the jeweller’s hoard from Snettisham, Norfolk (GB), dating to the mid-2nd century CE (C. Johns 1997). It is assumed that barbarian goldsmith’s workshops used raw materials imported from the Roman Empire. So far, no traces of exploitation and processing of non-ferrous metal ores in the Roman period have been recorded in Poland, allowing a conclusion that local workshops melted down Roman imports. The share of silver in the denarii varied and generally decreased as a result of successive reforms introduced by ruling emperors. However, metallurgical analyses (Table 1) show that shield-headed bracelets were made from high-grade raw material containing about 92–97% Ag, which excludes the possibility that the alloys were created by melting coins with varied silver content, e.g. fourrées. No archaeological sources confirm that the ‘barbarians’ had the ability to refine precious metals. Therefore, the raw material probably came from scrap vessels made of alloys containing 92–97% Ag. Given the enormous practical knowledge of goldsmiths of that time, the metal they had available was probably selected with respect to alloy composition. Raw material could also have been obtained by importing bars containing 94–95% Ag; however, such finds (known mainly from the frontier areas of the Roman Empire) date only to the 3rd and 4th century (K. Painter 1981). The fragments of cups discovered at the cemetery of the Wielbark Culture in Czarnówko, Lębork County, are an indication that high-grade silver from Roman vessels was used in Pomerania in the Roman Period. Metallurgical analyses show that they were made of alloys containing 96–99% Ag (J. Schuster 2018). In recreating the technology of manufacture of the bracelets in question, we also used our own observations concerning the assessment of alloy quality. Raw material was forged into long strips (up to 25 cm in length in the case of single-spiral forms, and up to 50 cm in length in the case of double-spiral forms) on which delamination and chipping could occur. They were the result of both the heterogeneity of silver and errors made during forging and are often still visible on final products (Fig. 8). This was possible due to the reduced hardness and resulting ductility of high-grade silver alloys with only a few percent of copper added. A common way of making the basic form of metal objects, both in Roman and ‘barbarian’ craftsmanship, was forging. Dies were used to create ornaments of repetitive shapes. They were usually two-piece sets (Fig. 9), with a top and bottom swage. The technique involves placing a heated rod or strip between the parts of a die and forging while shifting it until a suitable profile is obtained. Dies were basic elements of a blacksmith’s shop (Fig. 10, 11); in goldsmith’s workshops, a simplified version consisting of only the bottom swage was used. The technological properties of the alloys required the ‘cold’ forging method, during which the material changed to a fine-crystalline structure and hardened. The workpiece was occasionally soaked to recrystallise and plasticise the alloy. The use of this technology in barbarian metalwork is confirmed by the find of an anvil with ‘nail headers’ from Vimose on the island of Funen (DK), with a negative impression of a profile for forging on its underside (Fig. 12, 13). The bows of the Weklice bracelets were also forged in the manner described. Based on precise measurements, it can even be assumed that almost identical forming swages, with a negative impression of the design of approx. 10.5 mm in width, were used. Slight differences in shape may result from the finishing treatment of an already forged bracelet (Fig. 14). Creation of a shield-headed bracelet was time-consuming work, requiring a lot of knowledge and skill. First, a silver bar was cast, which was then forged into a long strip. Forging a semi-finished product in a swage required the involvement of two people and excellent work organisation. The use of a metal stamp, shaped in the outline of the profile on the swage, made it possible to obtain a deep relief (Fig. 15). Observation of the undersides of bases and heads of snake bracelets indicates that they were formed slightly differently. The underside of the heads shows traces of irregular impacts (Fig. 16:1–3), which indicates that these parts were made using the free forging technique. Such a bracelet creation process was applied in the reconstruction presented here, with the body forged on a swage, and the heads hammered on a wooden and lead pad (Fig. 17, 18). Forged heads of the original Weklice bracelets are irregular in shape, and even the subsequent application of engraved and punched ornaments on the face did not fully mask this asymmetry. Free forging and die forging were the initial techniques that made it possible create a certain section of a decoration. Bracelets forged in this manner have uneven face surfaces. The next step was to even and refine the body by smoothing and grinding, first with a file and then with grindstones. To smooth the surface of ornaments made of soft alloys, a flat iron burin or a small chisel with a wide, hardened blade could also be used. Traces of such treatments in the form of scratched, parallel lines are visible on the analysed examples of Weklice bracelets. The edge of a polygonal file was used to divide the heads and collars and make grooves accentuating raised ridges (Fig. 19:1.2). An ornament in the form of two main motifs made with punches, i.e. incised lines imitating a twisted or beaded wire and an alternately stippled snake-zigzag (Fig. 19, 20), was later applied on the face surfaces of the bracelets. During these operations, washers were used to prevent damage to the thin sheet metal. A tool with flat blade, a type of small chisel, was commonly used (Fig. 19:3.4). Chasers with a curved undercut in the blade and pronounced, lateral teeth, which gave a clear semi-circular imprint, were rarely used. Usually, such a punch would leave a distinct mark of fangs on the sides (Fig. 19:5). Oblique, parallel lines imitating twisted wires were made with similar punches in imitation of beaded wires. In the case of the former, a better effect was achieved using a chisel with a semi-circular notch in the blade and thickened teeth on the sides. The stamped pattern had the shape of an oblique, slightly S-shaped line (Fig. 19:6). Another variant of this ornamentation consisted of incised ridges separated with an undecorated band (Fig. 19:7). The decorative snake (zigzag) motif was made by punching regular points on alternate sides of a raised ridge (Fig. 19:8.9). The final step was polishing, giving the decoration a shine. In ancient times, gold and silver jewellery was commonly polished with semi-precious stones. Polishers made of iron were also used, providing decorations made of silver, gold and even tin alloys with a perfect shine (Fig. 21). Another method of finishing ornaments was patination. In antiquity, blackening of silver products was fashionable and was probably also used by barbarian communities. In the case of the described shield-headed bracelets with flatly displayed patterns, it was even advisable to leave the blackened depressions in the stamped ornaments, as it intensified – against the background of the polished smooth surface – the impression of the ornament’s three-dimensionality (Fig. 22). The appearance of shield-headed bracelets in the Wielbark Culture was undoubtedly the effect of contacts between the local communities and the Roman Empire. The result of these contacts was a huge transfer of technical knowledge, crafting skills and aesthetic concepts, among others. The ancient, naturalistic snake motif, fashionable and common in the 1st and 2nd century CE, was adapted and stylistically transformed into its own ‘barbarian’ design. This phenomenon intensified in the second half of the 2nd century and the early 3rd century. The bracelets from Weklice described here were probably made in a local blacksmith/goldsmith workshop to the order of elites living in the settlement clusters of the Wielbark Culture, which stretched around the shores of the then bay of the Vistula Lagoon. These workshops based their manufacturing on their own technological tradition, preferring blacksmithing techniques, including the use of dies with elaborate profiles. This phenomenon can be observed not only in the metalwork of the Wielbark Culture, but also in other Germanic societies living in the south-western regions of the Baltic Sea coast.
    Źródło:
    Wiadomości Archeologiczne; 2020, LXXI, 71; 161-187
    0043-5082
    Pojawia się w:
    Wiadomości Archeologiczne
    Dostawca treści:
    Biblioteka Nauki
    Artykuł
    Tytuł:
    Żołędziowate ogniwo wodzy łańcuchowych z Gulbi na Pojezierzu Iławskim
    ‘Acorn-shaped’ Chain Rein Link from Gulb in the Iława Lakeland
    Autorzy:
    Cieśliński, Adam
    Powiązania:
    https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/551146.pdf
    Data publikacji:
    2020-01-28
    Wydawca:
    Państwowe Muzeum Archeologiczne w Warszawie
    Tematy:
    okres wpływów rzymskich
    kultura wielbarska
    rząd koński
    wodze łańcuchowe
    stanowiska wotywne
    Roman Period
    Wielbark Culture
    horse tack
    chain reins
    votive deposits
    Opis:
    In the collection of the Museum of Warmia and Masuria in Olsztyn, there is an oblong chain rein link in the shape of joined double acorns made of copper alloy (Fig. 1). The object was discovered about 500 m to the north-east of the main intersection in the village of Gulb, Iława County, in northern Poland. The link from Gulb corresponds to type Z4 acc. to S. Wilbers-Rost (1994), which is one of the main components of bridles of the Vimose I subtype. Vimose I bridles are found in vast areas of Barbaricum, with several more pronounced concentrations in Sambia and the Middle Danube basin (Moravia and Upper Austria), on the Main and Middle Rhine, and on the south-western shores of the Baltic Sea (Jutland, Skåne, Mecklenburg and Hither Pomerania). A few specimens are also known from Masuria and Mazovia (Fig. 3). The earliest assemblages with Vimose I bridles come from Sambia, from graves dating to phase B2b; they become more numerous in the subsequent phase B2/C1. The artefacts from the Middle Danube are stray finds either from settlements or without a known context of discovery, exceptionally from aquatic environments. A chronological analysis of the use of settlements in this region indicates that the components of the Vimose I bridles should be associated with phase B2/C1, i.e. the times of the Marcomannic Wars or the period immediately after them. The youngest examples of Vimose I bridles from phase C1b come from the only better-dated assemblage in the south-western Baltic zone, namely the votive deposit from the Thorsberg moor (Fig. 2) at the base of Jutland. The chronology of bridles of the Vimose I subtype indicates that the oblong linking piece from Gulb should be attributed to the people of the Wielbark Culture, who inhabited the Iława Lakeland from at least phase B2 to C3–D. Despite the stray nature of the find, this assessment is of paramount importance, as so far no elements of horse tacks with chain reins have been found in a context that would clearly indicate the Wielbark Culture. Only two water finds could possibly be linked to this cultural unit, although their cultural affiliation is not clear: the bridle of the Vimose I subtype fished out of the Bug near Kamieńczyk and the Illerup-type harness found in a swamp near Żabin, Drawsko Pomorskie County, in north-western Poland (Fig. 4). The uneven distribution model of horse tacks with chain reins in the eastern part of Barbaricum reflects the funerary customs of communities within particular cultural groups. In the West Balt Circle, components of horse tacks are typical elements of grave-goods and often occur in the burials of the horses themselves. However, the tradition of depositing horse tacks in graves and burying horses at cemeteries from the Roman Period is almost unknown in the Przeworsk and Wielbark Cultures. On the other hand, in the basins of the Oder and Vistula Rivers, horse tacks were votively deposited in aquatic environments. In this zone, metal elements of bridles should also be expected at settlements, as demonstrated by the example from the Przeworsk Culture settlement in Jakuszowice, Kazimierza Wielka County, in southern Poland, and also suggested by more numerous finds from the Danube Zone. Therefore, it seems more likely that the find from Gulb comes from a settlement or a votive deposit, although an unequivocal solution to this research problem seems unlikely due to incomplete information on the context of the discovery.
    Źródło:
    Wiadomości Archeologiczne; 2020, LXX, 70; 239-245
    0043-5082
    Pojawia się w:
    Wiadomości Archeologiczne
    Dostawca treści:
    Biblioteka Nauki
    Artykuł
    Tytuł:
    Nowe materiały ze schyłku okresu wpływów rzymskich i początków okresu wędrówek ludów z okolic Wyszogrodu, w pow. płockim
    New Materials from the End of the Roman Period and the Beginning of the Migration Period from the Vicinity of Wyszogród, Płock County
    Autorzy:
    Woźniak, Marcin
    Powiązania:
    https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/551142.pdf
    Data publikacji:
    2020-01-28
    Wydawca:
    Państwowe Muzeum Archeologiczne w Warszawie
    Tematy:
    kultura wielbarska
    późny okres wpływów rzymskich
    okres wędrówek ludów
    zapinka
    sprzączka
    okucie końca pasa
    Wielbark Culture
    Late Roman Period
    Migration Period
    brooch
    belt buckle
    strap-end
    Opis:
    The collection of the Muzeum Wisły Środkowej i Ziemi Wyszogrodzkiej (Vistula River and Wyszogród Land Museum) in Wyszogród contains hitherto unknown artefacts from the end of the Roman Period and the early phase of the Migration Period. These include: a late brooch with returned foot of Almgren VI,2 series (Fig. 2:1), fragment of a plate-headed brooch (Fig. 2:2), and a beak-shaped strap-end (Fig. 2:3), discovered at Rębowo, Płock County (Fig. 1), and a belt buckle with a thickened frame (Fig. 3) from Wyszogród, Płock County (Fig. 1). All artefacts are made of copper alloy. These forms are typical of the latest phase of the Wielbark Culture in the area of Mazovia on the right bank of the Vistula and in Podlachia. Of particular importance is the fact that they were discovered in an area that, to a large extent, has not been archaeologically explored and which – in light of the material known so far – was devoid of settlement at the end of the Roman Period and at the beginning of the Migration Period.
    Źródło:
    Wiadomości Archeologiczne; 2020, LXX, 70; 246-249
    0043-5082
    Pojawia się w:
    Wiadomości Archeologiczne
    Dostawca treści:
    Biblioteka Nauki
    Artykuł
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