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Tytuł:
Bayesian age modelling of the Magdalenian settlement in the territory of present-day Poland
Autorzy:
Bobak, Dariusz
Połtowicz-Bobak, Marta
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/442453.pdf
Data publikacji:
2012
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Jagielloński. Instytut Archeologii
Tematy:
Bayesian methods
chronology
age modelling
Magdalenian
Polska
Opis:
The paper addresses the problem of the use of Bayesian methods for modelling age of the Magdalenian settlement on the territory of contemporary Poland. Basing on 14C datings of 10 sites we present the chronological frames of settlement on particular sites and we model occupation dynamic of Polish territory. Bayesian methods made it possible to clarify and in some cases to significantly narrow time frames of Magdalenian settlement on the research area.
Źródło:
Recherches Archéologiques Nouvelle Serie; 2013-2014, 5-6; 51-67
0137-3285
Pojawia się w:
Recherches Archéologiques Nouvelle Serie
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Four Types of Gerontological Education in Poland: the Current Situation and Needs for Future
Cztery rodzaje edukacji gerontologicznej w Polsce – sytuacja obecna i przyszłe potrzeby
Autorzy:
Szarota, Zofia
Perek-Białas, Jolanta
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/915958.pdf
Data publikacji:
2020-01-19
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu
Tematy:
Polska
seniors
ageing
old age
educational gerontology
Opis:
An increased interest in gerontological (old age) education has been recently observed in Poland. It is moreover claimed that this discipline has undergone a rapid development. This observation is particularly true in the context of the Universities of Third Age (U3A) movement. In this paper, we would like to revise current concepts, developed for the purpose of gerontological education, and then contribute to the overall discussion to stress that there is a need to include all education-oriented activities related to old age and ageing in various aspects as one integrated theoretical concept. We would like to address this topic in a holistic manner. However, we aim to connect the aspect of the recent development of old age-focused educational activities carried out in Poland with some data that has not been published before. This will provide an option to understand the development of education of these concepts in Poland as well as help to identify the drawbacks of this process. We will contribute an in-depth evaluation of this process in Poland and outline future needs which have to be met to use all opportunities to prepare both the present and future society for the rapid ageing of Poland’s population.
Źródło:
Studia Edukacyjne; 2017, 46; 207-223
1233-6688
Pojawia się w:
Studia Edukacyjne
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Elementy ryzyka w polskim systemie zabezpieczenia emerytalnego
Elements of Risk in the Polish System of Old-Age Pension Provision
Autorzy:
Kurowski, Lech
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/509149.pdf
Data publikacji:
2014
Wydawca:
Akademia Finansów i Biznesu Vistula
Tematy:
system emerytalny
Polska
opieka społeczna
demografia
fundusze emerytalne
old-age pension system
Polska
welfare
demography
old-age pension funds
Opis:
W artykule omówiono warunki, założenia i cele reformy systemu emerytalnego wprowadzonej w 2001 r. w Polsce. Zwrócono uwagę na podstawowy aspekt koniecznych zmian: tendencje demograficzne polegające na wydłużaniu się życia ludzi i zmniejszaniu liczby urodzeń, co wpływa na achwianie proporcji między pracującymi (czyli wpłacającymi stosowne środki do systemu) i niepracującymi (korzystającymi z wypracowanych środków). Konsekwencją utrzymującego się zachwiania będzie załamanie systemu emerytalnego i brak środków na wypłaty lub znaczące obniżenie ich wielkości. W artykule omówiono również doświadczenia kilkunastu lat istnienia zreformowanego systemu emerytalnego i wskazano możliwe scenariusze rozwoju. Omówiono efekty i problemy przej-ścia od systemu repartycyjnego do trójfilarowego. Poruszono także zagadnienie ryzyka dla finansów publicznych związanego z przeniesieniem części bieżących składek z ZUS do OFE oraz z funkcjonowaniem dwóch systemów emerytalnych równocześnie. Podjęto próbę określenia wpływu OFE na wysokość przyszłych emerytur, nakreślono perspektywy społecznego systemu ubezpieczeń emerytalnych oraz ryzyko z tym związane.
In his article, the author discussed the conditions, assumptions and objectives of the reform of the old-age pension system introduced in 2001 in Poland. He paid attention to the basic aspect of necessary changes: demographic trends consisting in extension of the lifespan of people and reduction of the number of births what affects upsetting the proportion between working (i.e. paying relevant contributions to the system) and non-working (using the funds worked out) people. A consequence of the persisting disturbance will be a collapse of the old-age pension system and lack of money for payments or a considerable reduction of their value. In the article, the author also discussed the experience of more than ten years of existence of the reformed old-age pension system and indicated the possible scenarios of development. He discussed the effects and problems of the shift of the pay-as-you-go system to the three-pillar one. He also touched the issue of the risk for public finance related to the transfer of part of the current contributions from the Social Insurance Institution (ZUS) to the Open Pension Fund (OFE) as well as to functioning of the two old-age pension system concurrently. He undertook an attempt to determine the impact of OFE on the amount of future pensions, outlined the perspectives of the social system of old-age pension insurance and the risk related thereto.
Źródło:
Zeszyty Naukowe Uczelni Vistula; 2014, 36/2014; 26-38
2353-2688
Pojawia się w:
Zeszyty Naukowe Uczelni Vistula
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Uwarunkowania prawne współczesnych systemów emerytalnych. Polski system emerytalny
The legal base of the contemporary old-age pension schemes. The polish old-age pension scheme
Autorzy:
Uścińska, Gertruda
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/1834099.pdf
Data publikacji:
2012-01-31
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Warszawski. Wydział Nauk Politycznych i Studiów Międzynarodowych
Tematy:
system emerytalny
Polska
koncepcja filarowości
polish old-age pension scheme
legal base
contemporary old-age pension schemes
pillar structure
Opis:
W opracowaniu przedstawiono uwarunkowania prawne współczesnych systemów emerytalnych. Omówiono koncepcję filarowości przydatną do analizy systemów emerytalnych w państwach UE oraz w Polsce. Przeanalizowano obowiązujące regulacje prawne w polskim systemie, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem jego zakresu podmiotowego. Opisano także propozycje i projekty zmian w polskim systemie wysuwane w ostatnich latach, zwłaszcza te dotyczące wieku emerytalnego. W części końcowej przedstawiono zmiany wprowadzone ustawą z 11 maja 2012 r. o zmianie ustawy o emeryturach i rentach z FUS. Na ich podstawie od stycznia 2013 r. nastąpi w Polsce zmiana wieku emerytalnego – wiek kobiet będzie zrównany z wiekiem mężczyzn, a następnie podwyższony do 67 lat. Proces ten będzie rozłożony w przypadku kobiet do 2040 r., a w przypadku mężczyzn do 2020 r.
The article presents the general legislative groundwork of the contemporary old-age pension schemes. The pillar structure useful for the analysis of the schemes in the EU Member States is discussed. The legal character of the Polish scheme is presented with an emphasis on its personal scope. Furthermore, the currently debated proposals for the reform are presented with a focus on the proposed changes in the retirement age. The final part presents the stipulations of the Act from April 2012 on old-age pension scheme, which is currently voted on. Act from 11 may 2012 it is adopted, there is going to be a significant change in the retirement age in Poland as it will be leveled for both men and women and increased to 67. The implementation process, however will be gradual and will end in 2040 in case of women and 2020 in case of men. Case retirement age but must be considered in connection with separate legislation and employment policy and labor code. The government and the legislature will be forced to take a comprehensive and balanced solution to this problem, including the effects in different areas. Such indeed are the recommendations of the EU in this regard.
Źródło:
Zabezpieczenie Społeczne. Teoria, Prawo, Praktyka; 2012, I, 1; 17-27
2299-2332
Pojawia się w:
Zabezpieczenie Społeczne. Teoria, Prawo, Praktyka
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
O wieku paleomagnetycznym mineralizacji miedziowej, uranowej i cynkowo-ołowiowej w Polsce określanym metodą porównania charakterystycznych namagnesowań z krzywą referencyjną pozornej wędrówki bieguna paleomagnetycznego
On the paleomagnetic age of copper,uranium and zinc-lead mineralizationin Poland, determined by comparison of characteristic magnetizations with the reference apparent polar wander path
Autorzy:
Nawrocki, J.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/2075777.pdf
Data publikacji:
2017
Wydawca:
Państwowy Instytut Geologiczny – Państwowy Instytut Badawczy
Tematy:
wiek paleomagnetyczny
mineralizacja
Polska
paleomagnetic age
mineralization
Polska
Opis:
Paleomagnetic poles obtained earlier from mineralization zones of Kupferschiefer (hematitic Rote Fäule, North Sudetic Basin), uranium-bearing rocks (Kletno abandoned mine, Sudetes) and zinc-lead ores (Cracow– Silesian district) were compared with the newest version of the apparent polar wander path (APWP) for “stable” Europe, deprived of paleoinclination error. Paleomagnetic data exclude age of the Rote Fäule younger than ca. 250 Ma. The pole matches the new APWP in the interval enclosed between ca. 250 Ma and ca. 258 Ma (age of the host rocks) after the correction of original data of about 10–15o on inclination error. It means that hematitic mineralization of the Rote Fäule was developed before compaction of sediments. The paleomagnetic pole isolated from the zinc-lead mineralization zone of the Carcow–Silesian district cannot be used anymore as the basic argument for its Tertiary age. Its large oval of confidence overlaps the Early Cretaceous segment of the reference APWP(100–120 Ma) as well. The Early Cretaceous (120–140 Ma) paleomagnetic age is the most probable in the case of uranium-bearing mineralization from the Kletno abandoned mine.
Źródło:
Przegląd Geologiczny; 2017, 65, 2; 105--108
0033-2151
Pojawia się w:
Przegląd Geologiczny
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Recruitment and motivation of Generation Z in the face of the employee’s market
Autorzy:
Ratajczak, Joanna
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/692573.pdf
Data publikacji:
2020
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny w Poznaniu
Tematy:
employees’ market
Generation Z
age management
Leszno
Polska
Opis:
Contemporary demographic changes in the labour market pose many challenges. One of them is the need to reconcile the needs of employees from different generations. The youngest generation on the labour market – Generation Z – has very specific expectations, which are discussed in the paper. At the same time, the article describes the labour market in a poviat town on the example of Leszno. As it turned out, contrary to popular opinion, despite the low level of unemployment and the difficulty in finding employees in many industries, there is no employee market in Leszno. Employers do not respond to the expectations of job candidates, especially the youngest ones, which in turn leads to their travelling to other, larger cities. In this way Leszno is depopulating. A similar situation occurs in other small poviat towns. The article proposes one solution to this problem, which is one of the research purposes. The second purpose is recognision of Generation Z’s expectations towards their future employers. The outcomes are described in the article.
Źródło:
Research Papers in Economics and Finance; 2020, 4, 1; 37-50
2543-6430
Pojawia się w:
Research Papers in Economics and Finance
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
O fragmentaryzacji srebra wczesnośredniowiecznego: na ile wiarygodne są dane metrologiczne? Przypadek skarbu z Mózgowa na Warmii (t.p.q. 1009)
How reliable are metrological data ? The case of the treasure from Mózgowo in Warmia (T.P.Q. 1009)
Autorzy:
Bogucki, Mateusz
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/1037926.pdf
Data publikacji:
2020-01-01
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu
Tematy:
Polska
Viking-Age
Hoards
Coin Circulation
Hacksilver
Metrology
Opis:
For years, a discussion has been held about the circulation of silver in the early Middle Ages and the role played by fragments of coins and ornaments. This multi-faceted discussion has also revolved around the function of the smallest fragments. Metrological research has indicated certain regularities in the incidence of fragments of a specified weight depending on region and chronology. New data for this discussion was provided by a treasure trove originally discovered in 1868 in Mózgowo in Warmia. Only slightly more than 400 coins have survived from the items discovered in the 19th century; they are a part of a collection of the Herzog Anton Ulrich Museum in Braunschweig. The place where the treasure was discovered was identified in 2010; more than 800 coins and fragments thereof were unearthed. In 2012, the area was examined as a site of excavation where subsequently over 370 specimens were discovered. The treasure trove must have been hidden sometime after 1009, most probably around 1015. The coins from the museum in Braunschweig are not suitable for metrological analysis because they were intentionally separated for a systematic collection. Following an analysis of the specimens discovered in 2010 and 2012, considerable discrepancies in weight frequencies were observed. It turns out that in the collection of objects excavated by professional metal detector operators, very small fragments of silver prevail. Before, they were rarely registered in early medieval treasures (fragments weighing more than 1 gram represent only 6.66%, pieces weighing less than 1 g represent 93.33%, fragments of up to 0.5 g represent 87.61%, while pieces weighing less than 0.1 g represent a whopping 55% of the entire collection).The differences in the weight of silver fragments in the specific parts of the treasure trove from Mózgowo shed new light on both the methodology of examining treasure troves and how representative the data used so far in statistical and metrological analyses are.
Źródło:
Slavia Antiqua: rocznik poświęcony starożytnościom słowiańskim; 2019, 60; 221-238
0080-9993
Pojawia się w:
Slavia Antiqua: rocznik poświęcony starożytnościom słowiańskim
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Dating the Morasko meteorite fall by natural thermoluminescence of the fusion crust
Autorzy:
Fedorowicz, S.
Stankowski, W. T. J.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/94222.pdf
Data publikacji:
2016
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu
Tematy:
iron meteorite
terrestrial age
dosimetry
Polska
meteoryt żelazny
dozymetria
Polska
Opis:
The date of fall of the Morasko iron meteorite was determined by means of thermoluminescence measurements of the fusion crust and related local materials. Three small pieces, commonly referred to as ‘shrapnel’, were used. The results obtained are 4.5–5.0 ka, which is in good agreement with previous estimates of 4–6 ka on the basis of radiometric, dosimetric and palynological methods.
Źródło:
Geologos; 2016, 22, 3; 251-258
1426-8981
2080-6574
Pojawia się w:
Geologos
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Pomiar dyspersji wieku w momencie zgonu. Przyczynek do analizy kompresji umieralności w Polsce
Autorzy:
Wróblewska, Wiktoria
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/1827686.pdf
Data publikacji:
2017-06-02
Wydawca:
Polska Akademia Nauk. Czytelnia Czasopism PAN
Tematy:
modal age at death
interquartile range
Gini coefficient
Polska
personyears lost
Opis:
The article presents the life-table dispersion measures and analysis results for Poland with special regard to the process of mortality compression. The following measures were analysed: Gini coefficient, average inter-individual difference in age at death, modal age at death, inter-quartile range, standard deviation above the modal age at death, person-years lost (e-dagger) and index of mortality entropy. The empirical analysis employed data for the years 1958–2014 derived from the Human Mortality Database (HMD). The observed tendency towards reduction in the dispersion of age at death was not uniform during the 50 year span analysed and actually stagnated in certain periods. In particular, the results for the male population do not indicate a definite trend towards reduction in mortality dispersion. The results for the female population demonstrate a reduction in age dispersion at death among women over time with regard to all measures, with the modal age at death advancing towards progressively older age groups. The dispersion measures utilised in this study and the results can be used in further research on mortality compression in Poland.
Źródło:
Studia Demograficzne; 2017, 171, 1; 3-25
0039-3134
Pojawia się w:
Studia Demograficzne
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Public Support for Military Actions against Terrorism: The Effects of Age, Generations, and Political Orientations
Autorzy:
Słomczyński, Kazimierz M.
Shabad, Goldie
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/1929636.pdf
Data publikacji:
2010-06-23
Wydawca:
Polskie Towarzystwo Socjologiczne
Tematy:
attitudes toward terrorism
support for military actions
age
generations
political orientations
Polska
Opis:
This paper focuses on attitudes of Poles toward military interventions exercised by Polish troops in foreign countries. Specifically, we study the impact of age, generations, political biographies, and political orientations on mass support for military actions that have been framed in public debate and in the media as attempts to curtail or eliminate terrorism. Using data from the Polish Panel Study, POLPAN 2003–2008, we demonstrate that support for military actions depends on views on the political nature of terrorism, life experiences related to age/period, generational effects as defined by demographic cohorts and historical events, political biographies, and stances toward democracy and a market economy. These results are robust for 2003 and 2008. Although there is a significant decline of support for military actions through time, opinions expressed in 2003 strongly influence those expressed five years later. The longitudinal nature of our data allows us to show the effects of interactions of time-related variables on support for military actions in the most recent period, 2008. Effects of age on support for military action in 2008 depend on individuals’ stances on this issue in 2003, after the invasion of Iraq. Among those who were strong supporters of military action in the past, current support does not diminish with age. Among those who did not support military action in the past, however, current support quickly decreases with age.
Źródło:
Polish Sociological Review; 2010, 170, 2; 171-190
1231-1413
2657-4276
Pojawia się w:
Polish Sociological Review
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
The state of bioelements in the hair of free-ranging European bisons from Białowieża Primeval Forest
Autorzy:
Kosla, T.
Skibniewska, E.
Skibniewski, M.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/30717.pdf
Data publikacji:
2011
Wydawca:
Polska Akademia Nauk. Czytelnia Czasopism PAN
Tematy:
Bialowieza Forest
Polska
European bison
bioelement content
bison
hair
animal age
age
gender
animal hair
animal organism
hair sample
phosphorus content
magnesium content
titanium content
vanadium content
Opis:
Human or animal hair is considered to be a good indicator of the content of bioelements or toxic elements in human and animal organism. Its analysis is a good alternative for the arduous obtaining blood or biopsy samples. The aim of the performed research was the assessment of some chosen bioelements in the organism of European bison on the basis of their analysis in hair. The investigation material comprised hair samples obtained from 22 animals. All animals were divided into groups according to gender (males, females) and age (calves up to one year of age and animals older than 2 years). Samples were mineralized in nitric acid, under pressure in the microwave apparatus. The content of phosphorus, sulphur, magnesium, iron, titanium and vanadium were determined in hair samples. The content of these elements was determined using the ICP-AES method in accredited laboratory. The accuracy of determinations was tested using the standard reference material. The mean content of phosphorus in hair amounted to 245.14 mg · kg–1, SD 65.00, magnesium 97.32 mg · kg–1, SD 33.16, iron 119.48 mg · kg–1, SD 83.31 and titanium 2.368 mg · kg–1, SD 2.097. In case of these elements, differences depending on gender and age were statistically insignificant. Mean content of sulphur in the European bison hair amounted to 3.41% with equalized content in the herd (SD 0.22%). Here also statistically insignificant differences depending on gender were observed. However, a statistically significant difference (p ≤ 0,05) was demonstrated which depended on animal age. Mature European bisons had more sulphur in hair as compared to calves. The concentration of vanadium (0.362 mg · kg–1, SD 0.396 on the average) significantly differed in hair depending on the European bison age with much higher values in adult animals (calves 0.260 mg · kg–1, animals older than 2 years 0.686 mg · kg–1). Similar data were obtained while investigating hair of sea mammals.
Źródło:
Polish Journal of Veterinary Sciences; 2011, 14, 1
1505-1773
Pojawia się w:
Polish Journal of Veterinary Sciences
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Rozwój sieci parafialnych w dekanacie Zator do końca XVI wieku
Die Entwicklung des Pfarrgemeindenetzes im Dekanat Zator bis Ende des XVI JHS.
Autorzy:
Chachaj, Jacek
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/1041899.pdf
Data publikacji:
1997
Wydawca:
Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski Jana Pawła II
Tematy:
Mittelalter
Dekanat
Kirche
Polen
średniowiecze
dekanat
kościół
Polska
Middle Age
decanate
church
Polska
Opis:
Der Autor beschreibt die Entwicklung des Pfarrgemeindenetzes auf dem Gebiet des mittelalterlichen Dekanats Zator bis zum Ende des XVI. Jhs. In dieser Zeit entstanden auf dem genannten Gebiet 71 Kirchen und Kapellen. 60 von ihnen er-füllten in verschiedenen Zeitperioden die Rolle einer Pfarrkirche. Es existierten hier damals 56 Pfarreien. Ein Teil von ihnen hörte schon im Mittelalter auf, zu existieren; einige wechselten ihren Sitz. Die Mehrzahl der Kirchen (36 Pfarrkirchen und eine Filialkirche) entstanden bis 1325. Wegen mangelnder Quellen kann man in den meisten Fällen die genaue Zeit ihrer Gründung nicht angeben. Auf Grund einer speziellen Methode kann man möglicherweise die ältesten Kirchen nennen, die mit ihrer Herkunft vielleicht bis ins XI. und XII. Jh. zurückreichen. Diese Gruppe zählt etwa zehn Kirchen. In den nächsten Perioden, deren chronologische Grenzen die eine einigermaßen vollständige Pfarrstruktur des Dekanats in einem bestimmten Zeitabschnitt (1325-1358, 1480, 1598) wiedergebenden Durchschnittsquellen ausmarken, hört die Dynamik des Pfarrgemeindenetzes allmählich auf. Seit Ende des XVI. Jhs. entstehen auf diesem Gebiet keine neuen Kirchen mehr, bis an das Ende der Republik Polen. Das hängt sicherlich mit der Tatsache zusammen, daß Bedürfnisse der Ortsbewohner zufriedengestellt und Kolonisationsprozesse beendet worden sind. Die Entwicklung des Pfarrgemeindenetzes ist eng verbunden mit der Siedlungsentwicklung, mit politischer Situation und gesellschaftlichen Erscheinungen (Stiftungsaktionen der machthaberischen Familien und kirchlichen Institutionen). Auf dem Gebiet des Dekanats Zator hat die deutsche Kolonisation deutliche Spuren hinterlassen. Das steht im Zusammenhang mit der Existenz einer großen Anzahl von den eins oder zwei Dörfer umfassenden Kirchen und Pfarreien.
Źródło:
Archiwa, Biblioteki i Muzea Kościelne; 1997, 68; 221-308
0518-3766
2545-3491
Pojawia się w:
Archiwa, Biblioteki i Muzea Kościelne
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Devonian bryozoans of the Holy Cross Mountains, Poland. Part 1. Ctenostomata
Bryozoa dewońskie Gór Świętokrzyskich. Część 1. Ctenostomata
Devonskie mshanki Sventokrzhiskikh Gor (Pol'sha). Chast' 1. Ctenostomata
Autorzy:
Kiepura, M.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/23469.pdf
Data publikacji:
1965
Wydawca:
Polska Akademia Nauk. Instytut Paleobiologii PAN
Tematy:
paleontology
Devonian
bryozoan
Holy Cross Mountains
Polska
Ctenostomata
age
stratigraphic distribution
geographic distribution
Źródło:
Acta Palaeontologica Polonica; 1965, 10, 1
0567-7920
Pojawia się w:
Acta Palaeontologica Polonica
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Dom to nie tylko dach i cztery ściany… O budownictwie w późnej starożytności w Europie Północnej i Środkowej ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem ziem polskich
A House Means Not Only Four Walls and a Roof… On House Building in Northern and Central Europe in Late Antiquity with Special Consideration of Poland
Autorzy:
Schuster, Jan
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/2048809.pdf
Data publikacji:
2020-12-31
Wydawca:
Państwowe Muzeum Archeologiczne w Warszawie
Tematy:
okres przedrzymski
okres wpływów rzymskich
okres wędrówek ludów
budownictwo
długi dom
archeologia osadnictwa
Polska
Pre-Roman Iron Age
Roman Iron Age
Migration Period
house building
long-house
settlement archaeology
Polska
Opis:
One of the most interesting, but sometimes slightly underestimated topics of research as a whole into the Late Antiquity of the ‘barbaric’ part of Europe is the development of longhouses and settlements. This paper is an attempt to combine the results of long-term research on construction and settlements from the Iron Age (with a main focus on the Roman Iron Age and Migration Period) in the western part of Central Europe and Scandinavia with the results of relevant research in Poland. This is no easy task. Despite undeniable research progress in recent decades, settlement archaeology in Poland is still in the early stage of searching for patterns of recognition and reconstruction of longhouses that can contribute to the determination of individual house types. The aim of this paper is to convince the Polish research community that it is necessary to change its perspective on the subject of Iron Age house building and especially on the spatial organisation of settlements. Too often, one can observe an avoidance of careful and accurate analysis of archaeological objects in relation to the reconstruction of house plans – partly out of fear of misinterpretation, partly due to inability, partly because of habit and use of well-worn research paths, but often also out of a lack of reflection on the regularities and laws of statics and carpentry methods. In this way (unnecessarily), a gap was created between two (artificially created) zones of barbaric Europe that lacks one of the basic features of working on archaeological material within the so-called Germania magna: comparability. For a long time, the pit house was regarded as the main residential building in Late Antiquity in the area of Poland. Additionally, post houses were and are being reconstructed that could never have existed in this way. As a result of efforts to adapt the shape of the house to his own needs and economic requirements, a man living in Central and Northern Europe had already created a universal building in the Neolithic (Fig. 2) that we call a longhouse. However, this building is not a homogeneous creation. In different periods of time, in regionally determined varieties, it occurs in different forms. On the basis of certain design features, arrangements of roof-bearing structures and other elements, these varieties are recognised as house types. Similarly to the classification of artefacts and analysis of the distribution of different types, variants and varieties, the analysis of house types also helps us to determine the peculiarities of individual societies and groups, to track their development and to recognise zones of common tradition and contact networks. At this point, I would venture to say that construction traditions even more closely reflect the characteristics of individual societies than, for example, brooches whose forms have undergone rapid fashion changes and influences from various milieus. For large areas in western Central Europe and Scandinavia, we can determine house types that can be grouped into overarching categories, defining building tradition zones (Hauslandschaften). In the relevant works, such regions east of the Oder have not yet found their place. It is high time to change that. I decided to review in the first part of the paper the most important issues related to Iron Age house building, given the fact that this paper cannot cover and discuss all aspects of the issue. Construction details, forms and basic types of longhouses in northern Central Europe are discussed, followed by the layout of farmsteads and settlements. The second part of the article attempts to relate the results of settlement archaeology in western Central Europe and Scandinavia to research results in Poland, often based on a reinterpretation of published features. When discussing the main features – the description of the post hole, the appearance and foundation of the post itself, the walls, doorways, roofs and house types, as well as the layout of farmsteads and settlements – I always had in mind and attempted to refer to the situation in Poland. It is a trivial statement that the most important feature in settlement research is the post hole. We owe the first detailed description of the archaeological feature which we call a post hole to A. Kiekebusch (1870–1935), an employee and later a department head of the Märkisches Museum in Berlin. He had contact with C. Schuchhardt (1859–1943), one of the founders of the Römisch-Germanische Kommission in Frankfurt am Main. From 1899, he, in turn, conducted excavations in the Roman legionnaire camp of the Augustus period in Haltern on the northern edge of the Ruhr region, during which, for the first time on a large scale, attention was paid to the remains of ancient post foundations. Thus, research in Haltern can be regarded as the beginning of modern settlement archaeology. During research on the early Iron Age stronghold Römerschanze in Potsdam, Schuchardt transferred the discovery of the research value of the post hole to ‘barbarian’ archaeology. The aforementioned A. Kiekebusch participated in research on Römerschanze; C. Schuchardt’s innovative research methods made a huge impression on him. In the publication of results of his own excavation of a Bronze Age settlement in Berlin-Buch, he described the appearance and properties of the post hole on eleven (!) pages (Fig. 4). The turn of the 19th/20th cent. is also a breakthrough in settlement archaeology in the Scandinavian countries. Here, however, the road was slightly different than on the continent, in a figurative sense from the general to the detail. Geographical conditions and construction methods, sometimes quite different from the way houses were erected in Central Europe, were conducive to the discovery of real Iron Age ruins of three-aisled houses and in this way it was known almost from the very beginning of settlement research that the houses were elongated and based on the structure of regularly placed roof-bearing posts. For example, in 1924, plans were published of the remains of burnt down houses in the Late Pre-Roman Iron Age settlement at Kraghede in northern Jutland that was discovered in 1906 (Fig. 5). The posts of these houses have survived partly as charred wood, which greatly facilitated the interpretation of discovered traces. The 1920s and 30s witnessed a real leap in settlement archaeology, which was also observed on the continent, e.g. in the Netherlands. A.E. van Giffen (1888–1973) conducted excavations in 1923–1934 in the area of the warf/Wurt/wierde/terp at Ezinge in the Dutch part of Friesland – a Late Pre-Roman and Roman Iron Age settlement. These names, mentioned in Dutch, Frisian and North German dialects, refer to an artificial hill in the North Sea shore region, created to protect house sites against high tide and floods. Moisture in the earth was conducive to the preservation of organic materials, and because of this van Giffen also found ‘real’ ruins of houses (Fig. 6). Large-scale excavations of this type in Germany were conducted in 1954–1963 at the Feddersen Wierde site. The results of this research were just as spectacular as in the case of the settlement at Ezinge (Fig. 46, 47). Large-scale research began in various countries in the 1960s as part of extensive research projects. In Denmark, the nationwide ‘Settlement and Landscape’ project resulted, among others, in the uncovering of a huge area with several settlements/farm clusters from the Pre-Roman Iron Age at Grøntoft, Jutland (Fig. 1). The completely surveyed, enclosed settlement from the Pre-Roman Iron Age at Hodde, Jutland must be mentioned in this context, too. At Vorbasse in Jutland, a huge area from the Late Roman Iron Age and Migration Period settlement was uncovered. After pioneering research at Feddersen Wierde in the 1970s, as part of the ‘North Sea Programme’ project of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Community), research began at the 1st to 6th cent. CE settlement site at Flögeln in the German part of the southern coast of the North Sea. The results became fundamental not only for this region of Germany. As part of the competitive project ‘Research on Iron Age settlements’ of the Academy of Sciences in East Berlin, large-scale excavations were conducted in settlements of the Roman Iron Age and Migration Period settlements at Tornow in Lower Lusatia and at Herzsprung in the Uckermark. Already at the turn of the 1950s/60s, the famous Early and Late Roman Iron Age settlement at Wijster in the northern Netherlands was excavated, but the area studied was not comparable in size to the areas of the above-mentioned sites. In 1974, excavations began at Oss in the southern part of the country, starting in 1979 within the so-called Maaskant-Project of the University of Leiden, which led to the unveiling of an extremely large area, consisting of many, slightly dispersed excavations at so-called native settlements from the Pre-Roman Iron Age and the time when this region was part of the Roman Empire. North of the Rhine and Waal, in the northern Netherlands, the Peelo site is situated. Here, in the 1970s and 1980s, extensive excavations at several neighbouring settlement sites were carried out as part of the ‘Peelo project’ of the Biologisch-Archaeologisch Instituut of the University of Groningen. Similar large excavations were conducted in the 1980s at Colmschate in the eastern Netherlands by the Rijksdienst voor Oudheidkundig Bodemonderzoek, Archeologische Werkgemeenschap Nederland and Archeologie Deventer. The settlement traces date back to the Bronze Age up to medieval times. In the meantime, many new and important large-scale settlement excavations took place that cannot all be mentioned here. In the following chapters, I discuss the most important basic features of longhouses, beginning with the post hole and the post itself. Along with the growing sensitivity of archaeologists towards this issue and thanks to the good condition of surviving posts, there are more and more examples of houses where planks were used as roof-bearing poles. Excellent examples are the Late Pre-Roman Iron Age house at Jerup on Vendsyssel-Thy and two Late Roman Iron Age houses at Ragow and Klein Köris, both south of Berlin (Fig. 8). In some cases, there is evidence that the post was secured in the ground, such as a plank basement at the settlement of Klein Köris, anchoring at Feddersen Wierde or stones used as stabilisation like at Herzsprung (Fig. 7). In eastern Brandenburg, we have seen partial or complete post-hole fillings of burnt or unburnt clay, especially in the case of granaries. Depending on the function of the post, the sizes of the post holes can differ. The deepest post holes often belong to roof-bearing and doorway posts. It is interesting that this applies not only to three-aisle, but also to two-aisled houses (Fig. 10). This fact can be useful in the case of incomplete house plans. The basic typological division of longhouses refers to the general roof-bearing construction (three-aisled, two-aisled, one-aisled and so-called four-aisled houses). Three-aisled houses were not invented in the Iron Age; they appeared as early the Early Bronze Age (Fig. 11) within a large zone including northwestern France and Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark and Sweden. Although closely related to the idea of keeping livestock in the same building where people lived, well-dated three-aisled houses with a stall do not date to earlier than around 1400 BCE. During the Pre-Roman and Roman Iron Age, the area of occurrence of these houses contracted slightly; they were erected in a wide zone south of the North Sea, in the Netherlands and northern Germany, Jutland, on the Danish islands and in southern areas of Norway and Sweden. Due to intensive settlement research carried out since the 1990s, we know that – at least in the Roman Iron Age – all of Mecklenburg, Western Pomerania, most of Brandenburg and some regions at the Middle Elbe belonged to this zone of three-aisled houses. The layout of two-aisled houses differs slightly due to construction based on only one row of roof-bearing posts. The arrangement and number of posts are often not as regular as in the case of three-aisled houses, which can create problems when interpreting house plans. Two-aisled longhouses, known from Neolithic sites, and sometimes appeared in a surprising similar form at Bronze Age, Roman Iron Age and Migration Period sites south of the Baltic Sea (Fig. 13), were replaced in Scandinavia and the southern North Sea coast region by three-aisled houses as early as the Middle Bronze Age. The zone of appearance of two-aisled houses is not that well specified and seems to have changed over time. In the west, it is situated to the south of the three-aisled house zone, reaching Westphalia, eastern Brandenburg and parts of Saxony. In Lower Lusatia and south of Berlin, so-called four-aisled houses were discovered (Fig. 14, 63). It is not easy to interpret the plans of these buildings. Here, I present a new proposition for the characteristic post arrangement as supporting a loft (Fig. 64). In the case of one-aisled houses, the inner space is free of posts (Fig. 15) since the walls took over the roof-bearing function. It was a very demanding construction because poor carpentry of joining elements above the wall line inevitably led to its destabilisation and collapse, so it appeared on a larger scale at the beginning of the Middle Ages. However, we also know a few one-aisled longhouses dating to an earlier period. In the next chapter, all elements of the walls are discussed. Special attention is drawn to the fact that rows of posts and walls do not necessarily line up. Since the wall construction is not connected to the house frame or roof, its roof-bearing function can often be excluded (Fig. 20). As the ruins at Feddersen Wierde demonstrate, the line of the wall and that of lateral posts may differ. A special feature are the outer, eave-supporting posts (Fig. 21) that we know from houses in both the west and in the east, but at different times. Such constructions seem to appear in Poland, too. Most of the walls were probably built using the wattle and daub technique. It was predominant used in Central and Northern Europe, but was not the only technique. Houses with wall trenches might have been built with palisade-like walls, with planks (Fig. 26) or as log constructions (Fig. 27). Sometimes there are no traces of the walls at all and the construction must have been over-ground (Fig. 25, 29). With respect to log construction, one drawback is the need for timber, which in regions with limited timber resources can be decisive for choosing another wall variant. For constructing the huge Early Bronze Age house (33.5×ca. 8 m) at Legård on Thy-Vendsyssel (Fig. 27), it was calculated that about 150 oak trees were needed! Most longhouses were built with a rectangular plan, but a quite high number of longhouses in Northern and Central Europe had apse-shaped gable walls (Fig. 30). Roof reconstruction of three-aisled houses with that characteristic seems to pose no problem (Fig. 40–44), but in the case of two-aisled houses with a roof-bearing post in the apse-shaped gable wall, the task of reconstruction is challenging. Regarding the interior structure of Iron Age longhouses, we have a lot of information from the well-preserved house ruins at Feddersen Wierde (Fig. 47–50) and burnt down houses from Denmark (Fig. 51). They prove the widespread use of houses with a living area and stall under one roof. In other cases, the inner division is proven by the existence of small trenches where the partition walls of the boxes were placed (Fig. 52, 53). For now, we cannot determine the precise range of this economic model; the easternmost houses with stall trenches were discovered in Lower Lusatia (right on the German-Polish border). Placing animals under the same roof as people is not a phenomenon limited to antiquity. In some regions of Germany and the Netherlands, it was a fairly common form of farming in modern times. Some of these houses survived until the 1970s (Fig. 54). This type of house was found in a long zone from the vicinity of Amsterdam to the Hel Peninsula – mainly in the zone of the historical range of the Low German language, which is therefore called Niederdeutsches Hallenhaus. At a time when Bronze Age and Iron Age longhouses began to be intensively researched in the Netherlands and Germany, the memory of the original functioning of Niederdeutsches Hallenhaus, so similar to ancient buildings, was still alive, and the grandparents or parents of these researchers often lived in them or knew of such houses anecdotally (Fig. 55:1–3). Some very old buildings showed common structural features with houses from the Roman Iron Age. A comparison of the characteristics of ancient and modern houses has greatly facilitated approaching the subject and interpreting the results of excavations. However, it has sometimes also led to the use of inadequate terms that survive to this day and which are misleading. For example, if the famous researcher of rural architecture J. Schepers talked about Germanisches Hallenhaus or W. Haarnagel in his monumental monograph uses the term dreischiffige Hallenhäuser, they were influenced by the use of almost the same name of the above-mentioned medieval and modern houses that in terms of internal division are so similar to three-aisled longhouses from the Iron Age. However, there is a significant functional difference: the term Halle (hall) in Niederdeutsches Hallenhaus refers to a room with a threshing floor in the central nave, located between livestock bays. This room is large and hall-like, and that is why the houses were given the name Hallenhaus. The ‘hall’ in Late Antiquity (Fig. 58, 59) and medieval times had a completely different meaning and does not mean the same as in the case of rural houses from later times. In the next chapter, I discuss congruencies of house plans as a source of interpretation of incompletely preserved longhouses and for typological divisions. In regard to the latter, we have to take into account the state of preservation, touch-ups, repairs, modifications, extensions and superposition of house plans that influence the interpretation of the record. The same applies to farmsteads and even whole settlements that have been shifted, rebuilt, changed in layout and so on (Fig. 75–80). The issue of forms and structures of settlements is a rather complicated topic, because the condition for their assessment is a completely uncovered site. Such objects are rare, and even if a large complex is excavated, we can only assess the arrangement of objects within the excavations. This statement sounds trivial, but I emphasise this fact because we cannot be sure that there were no satellite units belonging to the given settlement nearby. This is well illustrated by the plan of extremely interesting features at Galsted in southern Jutland (Fig. 81). Its second phase represents another step of settlement evolution and is similar to what we know from settlements such as Nørre Snede in eastern Jutland (Fig. 82). The layout of farmsteads – although already present at some Late Pre-Roman Iron Age sites – represents the state of development of Roman Iron Age and Migration Period settlements. The earliest settlements of this type stem from Jutland, while the tendency to set up large, enclosed rectangular or trapezoidal farms in northern Germany is observable from the late 1st cent. CE and in the northern Netherlands from the 2nd cent. CE. The phenomenon of ‘stationary’ settlements is also known from East Germany, including the already mentioned settlements at Dallgow-Döberitz, Wustermark, Herzsprung or Göritz. Probably such settlements were discovered in Poland, too (see below). Settlements of this type replaced settlements with a different structure, dating to the Pre-Roman Iron Age. Their features included a loose arrangement of farms (rather unfenced) spread out over a large area (Fig. 1) and instability of house and farm sites. Houses and farmsteads were not occupied for a long period of time, but changed relatively quickly (the so-called wandering/shifting settlements). In the Late Pre-Roman Iron Age in Jutland and – in a slightly different form – in the northern Netherlands, completely enclosed settlements appeared. It was a fairly short-lived phenomenon (that ended in the 1st cent. CE), but the first step to stationary settlements, where farmsteads were designed to last for a longer period of time. At sites such as Nørre Snede in Jutland or Flögeln at the North Sea, there was a slow shifting of farmsteads, but over a period of several hundred years. With such a slow pace of changes in the positions of houses and farms, we can actually talk about stationary farms/settlements. It should be emphasised that the structure of settlements during the Roman Iron Age and Migration Period was not compact and there were no clusters of houses around a free square, as is sometimes suggested in Polish literature (admittedly on the basis of insufficient evidence). The image of settlements at that time resembles instead a group of several farms, sometimes in rows. We also know this spatial organisation from settlements in the left-bank regions of the Oder and Neisse Rivers (the German-Polish border) and there is no reason to believe that it was different to the east of these rivers. Despite undeniable progress in recent decades, settlement archaeology in Poland is still at the very beginning of searching for patterns for the recognition and reconstruction of longhouses that can contribute to the determination of individual types. Before completing this stage, analyses at a higher heuristic level do not yet make sense. All attempts to reconstruct settlement structures and search for references in building traditions to other regions in the Barbaricum have ended and often continue to end in failure. There are several reasons for this. First of all, this type of work from the second half of the 20th cent. mainly consisted of incorrect assumptions and axioms – especially regarding the dominance of pit houses in settlements. Secondly, the material that was available cannot create a suitable base for far-reaching conclusions – often the uncovered parts of the settlements were and are still too small to decipher the structures at all; sometimes it is not even possible to say in which part of a given settlement (or farmstead) the researchers conducted excavations. Another, also quite important point is the inaccurate or incompetent recognition of plans for alleged or actually non-existent post houses (Fig. 83). For decades, ‘buildings’ have been published that have no right to exist. Even in contemporary works, we can still find reconstructions (basically recreations) of primitive huts without statics or carpentry rules (Fig. 83), which were exceeded – if they had existed – by longhouses, even in the Neolithic. If buildings were created that have never existed, then obviously the image of a given farmstead must be false, not to mention the settlement structure. The necessity to verify published materials from settlements resulting from the state of research as I have described it does not need to be particularly emphasised. In a sense, the above-mentioned region between the Oder and the Elbe can be a benchmark for Poland. With regard to the state of research on settlements and the research paradigm, the situation in recent decades has been very similar to the situation in recent years in Poland. Until the early 1990s, the regions east of the Elbe could barely contribute to research on the subject of longhouses in the Barbaricum. It seemed that the presence of such buildings at settlements east of these regions that B. Trier (1969) had examined in his basic monograph on Iron Age longhouses was impossible. The very few examples were treated as exceptions. But due to large, often linear investments in infrastructure renewal in the early 1990s, the situation in Eastern Germany changed radically. Suddenly, longhouses started to appear at almost every settlement surveyed. One of the first excavations of this type was carried out in 1994 at the settlement site at Dallgow-Döberitz, a few kilometres west of Berlin, where at least 28 longhouses were discovered, primarily of the three-aisled variety. Publication of research results at Herzsprung in the Uckermark became a milestone, proving in the Oder region the existence not only of three-aisled longhouses, but farmsteads with a layout that was known only until that time from southern Scandinavia and the western part of Central Europe. In 1994–1997, 25 longhouses, mainly two-aisled, were uncovered at Göritz in Lower Lusatia. Today, a similar shift in settlement archaeology is taking place in Poland. Nevertheless, the attempts to distinguish longhouses at settlements in Poland and, at the same time, the frequent lack of experience of archaeologists in this field led to the creation and inclusion of objects that either did not exist in this form or not at all. The biggest obstacle is the lack of models to recognise house types, reflected by the arrangement of posts. There are still very few confidently confirmed three-aisled longhouses in Poland, yet this fact seems to result from the state of research rather than reflect the realities of the Roman Iron Age and Migration Period. To date, we do know four ‘definite’ buildings of this type, three from Pomerania and one from Mazovia; two others houses from central and southern Poland probably also belong to this group: the house I/A at Czarnowo in Western Pomerania (Fig. 85), a not fully uncovered house at Ostrowite in southeastern Pomerania (Fig. 86:1), a house at Leśno in southeastern Pomerania (Fig. 87), and a house in Rawa Mazowiecka (site 38) in western Mazovia (Fig. 88). In my opinion, the traces of a house at Kuców in Central Poland have to be interpreted as two rows of the roof-bearing posts of a three-aisled building (Fig. 89:1), while a house at Domasław in Lower Silesia also probably belongs to the three-aisled type (Fig. 90). Today, we know more examples of two-aisled houses than of three-aisled houses, which primarily appear only in the Przeworsk Culture area. It seems that in fact two-aisled houses were dominant in the area of this cultural unit, but it is still a bit too early to determine this with great certainty. The largest series of longhouses results from excavations of the settlement at Konarzewo near Poznań (Fig. 91), a smaller group we know from the Bzura River region (Fig. 94). The latter form a group that can be used to define the first longhouse type in Poland, the Konotopa type. A very interesting house was discovered in the 1960s at Wólka Łasiecka in Central Poland (Fig. 95). Although the arrangement of the posts is very clear, it can be read in the source publication, and sometimes in later ones, that this building is a three-aisled house. Actually, we are dealing with a two-aisled house with additional, external eave-supporting posts. In the case of the settlement at Izdebno Kościelne in western Mazovia, one can point to a house that was not included in the analysis of the site plan (Fig. 97). The same applies to a two-aisled longhouse at Janków in Central Poland (Fig. 96). It also belongs to the ‘verified’ buildings which were distinguished after the publication of the research results. The above-mentioned house at Wólka Łasiecka can be interpreted as a ‘lime kiln building’ on the basis of similar houses that, for example, were discovered at Klein Köris near Berlin and Herzsprung in the Uckermark. At the latter site, several buildings of this type have been even discovered, at least four of which were longhouses (e.g. Fig. 99:1.6). Lime kiln houses in other forms at this settlement (Fig. 100:3) and subsequent ones (Fig. 99:7, 100:1.2) show that there are many variants of such buildings. It might seem that production halls with limes kilns are a special feature of the settlements of Central Europe from the left-bank regions of the Oder and Neisse to the Vistula. However, the example from Osterrönfeld and houses from the settlement at Galsted in southern Jutland that are not yet published warn against this inference. It is not an exaggeration to claim that previous attempts to distinguish farmsteads in Poland have usually lacked sufficient evidence; often such an activity was and is simply impossible. There are several reasons for this: in the first place, often there are no reliable house plans, also the excavation area is too small and – it should be strongly emphasised – the research results are presented as a schematic plan only or in the form of a plan with symbols. Recently, contrast has been emphasised between the interpretation of the ‘farmstead’ approach among researchers from ‘west of the Oder’ and researchers in Poland, which in my opinion results mainly from the state of research and – probably even in a decisive way – from the research paradigm, and under no circumstances reflects ancient conditions. The results of excavations in recent years have shown that such an contradiction – if used to refer to archaeological material – is only apparent and artificial. The basis for analysing settlement structures in terms of farmsteads is quite narrow, although there are few proposals worth considering. In a separate article, I re-analysed published research results in the area of the settlement at Wytrzyszczki in Central Poland in terms of some longhouses. In addition to the alternative interpretation of buildings, the published plan and field documentation analysis provide the basis for a new interpretation of the spatial organisation of the uncovered part of the settlement (Fig. 102–104). An interesting arrangement of objects was observed at the settlement in at Mąkolice in Central Poland. Both post and pit houses as well as production facilities were uncovered here. The dispersion of all objects is quite clear, but several issues remain an open question (Fig. 105). Closely related to the form of the farmsteads is their arrangement relative to each other, meaning the form of a settlement. Polish literature holds the view that one of the basic forms of settlements of the Przeworsk Culture (because it is the only one we can say anything about) is the circular settlement. The above-mentioned settlement from Wytrzyszczki in Central Poland and well-known settlement from Konarzewo near Poznań cannot be called circular under any circumstances as has happened in the literature (Fig. 104, 106). Concerning the spatial organisation of settlements from areas east of the Oder, I am convinced that they did not differ from settlements in areas west of this river (Fig. 108, 109). The latest field research results provide us with more and more arguments confirming this thesis. The basic unit of each settlement was a farmstead, which was spatially organised as economic units in the western and northern regions of the Barbaricum.
Źródło:
Wiadomości Archeologiczne; 2020, LXXI, 71; 3-159
0043-5082
Pojawia się w:
Wiadomości Archeologiczne
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Incidence of butt rot in Norway spruce seed stands in Polands mountain regions assessed with sonic tomography
Autorzy:
Chomicz, E.
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/38678.pdf
Data publikacji:
2013
Wydawca:
Instytut Badawczy Leśnictwa
Tematy:
Norway spruce
Picea abies
seed stand
stand age
Polska
mountain region
Picus sonic tomography
Opis:
The incidence and severity of butt rot were assessed in 12 selected Norway spruce seed stands in the Beskidy Mountains, Poland. A semi-invasive technique of sonic tomography was used for the assessment of rot damage. Stands of different age classes (100–120, 130–150, 160–170 years old) and distinct regions of provenance (Istebna and Orawa) were investigated. Hierarchical analysis of variance was used to determine effects of stand age and stand provenance on butt rot occurrence at a stand level. High incidence of butt rot was noted in all of the studied seed stands (47% to 87% of diagnosed tree samples). Stand age had a significant effect on percentage share of ‘damaged wood’ on the tomogram. The extent of rot damage was rising with stand age, and the largest was observed in the age category 160–170 years. Spruce stands of Istebna provenance were generally more damaged by butt rot than those of Orawa provenance, however, the latter have been growing in forest sites more suitable for spruce in terms of fertility and altitude. Hierarchical analysis of variance did not show a statistically significant relationship between the region of provenance and average share of ‘damaged wood’ on the tomogram. Presented results indicate that for stands growing in similar conditions vulnerability to butt rot is determined by stand age. Further research is needed to separate impact of stand provenance identified with specific genetic constitution of a population from the effect of environmental conditions typical of a given region of provenance.
Źródło:
Folia Forestalia Polonica. Series A . Forestry; 2013, 55, 4
0071-6677
Pojawia się w:
Folia Forestalia Polonica. Series A . Forestry
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Wyświetlanie 1-15 z 42

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