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Tytuł:
Życie towarzyskie i kulturalne łodzian w latach 1870–1914
Social and cultural life in Łódź from 1870 to 1914
Autorzy:
Piestrzeniewicz, Marta
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/19322661.pdf
Data publikacji:
2009
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Łódzki. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego
Opis:
Social and cultural life of the Łódź society was paralyzed with numbness and stagnation almost by the whole 19th century. It resulted partly from the peculiar conditions which Łódź must have functioned in under the oppression of the invader and partly because of the industrial and multinational character of the city. Workers presented the biggest percentage of the whole society, that was nearly 70%, whereas intellectuals merely 5%, and although they were considerably in duty bound to be culturally active, they, in fact, stayed passive in this respect till the end of the 19th century. So, social life in Łódź in the 19th century was carried on around tap-rooms, caf́es and various dance halls. Theatre as well as musical concerts, as superior forms of culture, were used by the small number of the Łódź society, especially by the intellectuals or middle-class people. Not much culturally fastidious Łódź society found greater pleasure in entertainment connected with the elements of circus, theatre of wonders and museum of interesting details. Cabaret performances and cinematography are also worth mentioning because they both gained particular recognition among the inhabitants of the Łódź city. Numerous balls, social dancing evenings, receptions, bazaars, etc. created an opening for social meetings as well as showing yourself as a philanthropist or a charitable person. The process of making the Łódź society more culturally aware had been reaching the city very slowly, that’s why social meetings with the representatives of other nations had occurred rather impossible still for a long time. So, the world of capital and widely comprehended businesses was the only area of communication among the multinational Łódź society.
Źródło:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku; 2009, 06; 45-64
2450-6796
Pojawia się w:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Ziemianie w przemyśle drzewnym Królestwa Polskiego (1870–1914)
Landowners in the wood industry of the Polish Kingdon (1870–1914)
Autorzy:
Ziomek, Wojciech
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/19322701.pdf
Data publikacji:
2010
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Łódzki. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego
Opis:
Participation of landowners in the wood industry od the Polish Kingdom in the years 1870–1914 was limited mainly to the sawmilling industry. Landowners’ companies were 80% of establishments and over 60% of production’s value. The reason for such a large share was possession by the landowners, resource base, which accounted for forests. Another important reason was the spatial decentralizing of the industry. Landowners played a huge role in the production of furniture, creating in 1872 large bent furniture factory in Wojciechów, which, after 1904, employed a total of more than 1,500 people. In other sectors of the Polish Kingdom’s timber industry, gentry did not play a greater role.
Źródło:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku; 2010, 08; 153-165
2450-6796
Pojawia się w:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Rozbudowa sieci kolejowej jako czynnik rozwoju aglomeracji łódzkiej do 1914 r.
Expansion of the railway system as a factor of Łódź agglomeration until 1914
Autorzy:
Kulesza, Piotr
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/19322649.pdf
Data publikacji:
2009
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Łódzki. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego
Opis:
Disquisition on junction as a factor that forms progress of the Łódź agglomeration seems to be an extremely important topic for the study about this subject. Building the line connecting the city by the Warsaw-Vienna’s railway, and then Kaliska Railway gave Łódź a line with the most important market, but what's more, it made the most significant industry centre in the whole region. This article talks over the plans of the forward expansion of Łódź XIX/XX century junction, from which some part of them was unfortunately unrealized. It gave evidence of the action character and the swing of the Łódź industry group on the front with Juliusz Kunitzer, courageously competing with the groups connected with Russian capital. The most interesting project, which came by only partial realization, was obviously a bypass railway building, which was supposed to reduce the cost of the transportation and material depot. It gave the possibility to build the branches to Pabianice, Zgierz and other cities of the region, but it wasn’t exploited because of the strategical points. Building the line turned into north side, connecting Łódź with Prussia, which had given a chance to develop of the cities such as Ozorków or Łęczyca, was unrealized either. Similar plans of constructing the line turned into south side, to connect directly Łódź with Silesia were also torpedoed by the Russian authorities. These are only examples of thinking about Łódź as an agglomeration centre, which show how big potential that city and region had. This is an evidence of how the communication became one of the most important factor forming Łódź agglomeration giving a possibility to develop particular smaller and bigger urban centre, accelerating the changes of a spatial management character of the suburban Łódź areas.
Źródło:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku; 2009, 06; 173-187
2450-6796
Pojawia się w:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Zapisy testamentowe i darowizny na cele dobroczynne w guberni kaliskiej 1865–1914
Testamentary legacies and donations to charities in Kalisz Province between 1865 and 1914
Autorzy:
Tomaszewicz, Andrzej
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/19322659.pdf
Data publikacji:
2009
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Łódzki. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego
Opis:
Among the various forms of help taken by the people of the Kingdom of Poland to support the poor and the sick as well as not very well-off students, testamentary legacies and donations were of great significance. In sources dating from 1865 to 1914, information about 170 such legacies intended to serve different charity purposes across Kalisz Province have been found. 1.2 million roubles have been received from these legacies. There were representatives of gentry, the intellectuals, merchants and wealthy craftsmen among the legators. However, it was the representatives of grand industrial bourgeoisie, mainly of German and Jewish descent, who have made the most substantial legacies. Owing to the charity legacies, many valuable initiatives could be accomplished. In 1899, a Henryk Schlöesser’s House of Gratuitous Apartments and Support was opened in Ozorków. In 1909, a House of Love of God and Neighbour for poor members of Evangelical Church was built in Kalisz and in 1911 a shelter for the Israelites was opened. Legacies by private individuals contributed to opening hospitals in Koło and Warta. Also, several educational institutions emerged in Ozorków, Kalisz, Konin, Wieluń and Lisków. In a situation when Polish people could not expect financial help from the occupant’s administration, the creation of several shelters and educational institutions as well as emergency help for the poor appeared to be an issue of tremendous importance.
Źródło:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku; 2009, 06; 79-122
2450-6796
Pojawia się w:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Działalność społeczna kobiet w Piotrkowie w świetle „Kroniki Piotrkowskiej” 1910–1914
Social women activity in the town of Piotrków based on “The Chronicle of Piotrków” in 1910–1914
Autorzy:
Piestrzeniewicz, Marta
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/19944674.pdf
Data publikacji:
2011
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Łódzki. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego
Opis:
Social women activity in Piotrków limited, at first, to philanthropy and concerned around the Christian Charitable Institution. Not before the year 1906 mutual-aid societies came into existence. Their aim was to stand up for better conditions as well as for development in cultural and educational spheres. At the beginning of the 20th century in nearly all associations women performed an important part. They took care of The Charitable Institutions, the Poor Relief Department, which existed by the School Help Institution, they organized Sunday’s talks for poor children as well as helped poor families at their homes. Moreover, women were generally responsible for artistic settings of rejoicings and balls as well as for contributions for a charitable purpose. Active women’s work also evinced inartistic life of Piotrków. In 1910 Stefania Babicka, a famous pianist in Piotrków, became the chairwoman of the Musical Institution. She significantly contributed to the dissemination of the knowledge of Polish music. Helena Ottowa, a woman who was very respected by lovers of drama, was occupied in running the dramatic section. The intellectuals occurred to be the most active group as far as the organization of public life was concerned at the beginning of the 20th century. Women who were socially active in the town of Piotrków came mainly from the group of the intellectuals.
Źródło:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku; 2011, 09; 215-232
2450-6796
Pojawia się w:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Wpływ rosyjskiej polityki protekcyjnej na sytuację gospodarczą Królestwa Polskiego w latach 1877–1914
The influence of the protection policy on the economy in the Kingdom of Poland in 1877–1914
Autorzy:
Kowalczyk, Rafał Wiktor
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/19322651.pdf
Data publikacji:
2009
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Łódzki. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego
Opis:
Protection policy was established in 1877 after the fiasco of the 20 year period of progressive liberalisation policy, forwarded by the then Minister of the Treasury Michał Rejtern. In 1877, when deciding on customs, Russian Treasury used fiscalism, but the success of this particular solution caused a shift to protective and prohibitive policy. Russians wanted an independence from import, at the same time developing production, output of resources and agriculture used for the industry in the Russian Empire. After the change of the economical doctrine in 1877, the Kingdom of Poland’s market became attractive to the foreign capital investments. The investments, however, took place only in those sectors of economy which were included in the Russian government’s protective policy. The instruments of protective policy, such as customs and differential tariffs caused an increase of investments in many branches, contributing to theirs development. The development in the chemical industry, heavy industry and even in some of the branches of agriculture was especially dynamic. The protective policy was more favourable to the heavy industry in southern Russia than to the great ironworks in Kingdom of Poland. This, however, was related to the fact that iron ore layers in Krivoy Rog were common and had significant quantity of iron while layers in Częstochowskie were too small to suffice even for the needs of the ironworks of Sosnowiec – Częstochowa industrial district, whereas Świetokrzyskie layers had too low content of iron and contained many impurities. Additionally, Russia did not develop heavy industry in the Ural Basin, either. Without the protective policy, however, the rapid development of the heavy industry branches (metallurgy, mining and metal machine industry) would have been impossible in the Kingdom of Poland. The extension of protective policy into the cotton industry resulted in imposing of high tariffs on cotton from the southern states of USA and Egypt. The enterprises from Kingdom of Poland were forced to buy cotton from central Asia and Transcaucasus. It increased the costs of textile industry; the export to the peripheral markets of Russian Empire, however, would not have been possible in that scale without the tariffs and the development of the textile branch in Kingdom of Poland might not have been as significant as it was. In general, Russian custom policy had positive influence on affluence of investments of foreign capital into many branches of Kingdom of Poland’s industry, contributing to its dynamic upgrowth.
Źródło:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku; 2009, 06; 153-172
2450-6796
Pojawia się w:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Wkład polskich łodzian pochodzenia ziemiańskiego w rozwój Łodzi wielkoprzemysłowej czasu zaborów (1820–1914)
The contribution of inhabitants from Łódź of landowners origin in development of industrial Łódź in period of annexations (1820–1914)
Autorzy:
Pytlas, Stefan
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/19934369.pdf
Data publikacji:
2010
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Łódzki. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego
Opis:
The Poles of noble origin were few in Łódź. They didn’t own in general estates, especially large. For development of city, which became industrial in Polish Kingdom, and his population from end of first half of 19th century retreated degree some inhabitants from Łódź of landowners origin. They were: Maciej Wyszyński from the beginning 19th century – the owner of glassworks in Żabieniec, Jan Załęcki connected with distillery, and later in second part of 19th century – Aleksander Skrudziński (founder of dye-works and finishing department) and Jan and Kazimierz Arkuszewski – owners of mechanical institution in metal-machine industry, which were promoted to few middle polish industrial bourgeoisie. For the development of economy contribution had too Kazimierz Żukowski (mechanical industry), Wacław Drozdowski (dye-works and finishing department) and engineers Edmund Nekanda-Trepka, Stefan Przedpełski and in significant degree Andrzej Rosicki (mayor of Łódź between years 1862–1865) actively worked almost to 1904.
Źródło:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku; 2010, 08; 91-102
2450-6796
Pojawia się w:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Andrzej Tomaszewicz, Dobroczynność w guberni kaliskiej 1864–1914, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego, Łódź 2010, ss. 592
Autorzy:
Puś, Wiesław
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/687791.pdf
Data publikacji:
2012
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Łódzki. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego
Źródło:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku; 2012, 10; 272-274
2450-6796
Pojawia się w:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Aleksander Łupienko, Kamienice czynszowe Warszawy 1864–1914, Warszawa: Instytut Historii Polskiej Akademii Nauk 2015, ss. 549 + il.
Autorzy:
Śmiechowski, Kamil
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/687755.pdf
Data publikacji:
2016
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Łódzki. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego
Źródło:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku; 2016, 16; 234-235
2450-6796
Pojawia się w:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Mirosław Ustrzycki, „Ziemianie polscy na Kresach 1864–1914. Świat wartości i postaw”, Wydawnictwo Arcana, Kraków 2006, ss. 406
Autorzy:
Dajnowicz, Małgorzata
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/687532.pdf
Data publikacji:
2009
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Łódzki. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego
Źródło:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku; 2009, 06
2450-6796
Pojawia się w:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Zarys działalności oświatowej Lubelskiego Towarzystwa Rolniczego w latach 1905–1914
The educational activity of Lublin’s Agricultural Company
Autorzy:
Przegaliński, Andrzej
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/19898219.pdf
Data publikacji:
2010
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Łódzki. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego
Opis:
The article presents the educational activity of Lublin’s Agricultural Company (LAC). The origin of the organization reached the last years of 19th century and the works of Agricultural Association (Syndicate) in Lublin. In the context of activity that LAC used to lead, it is understandable to characterize its achievements on the field of improving both cultivation and rural industry. The LAC realized the program that was mainly directed to the peasant community. Under auspices of LAC were organized local farm associations, shops, various courses, competitions and exhibitions. In the year of 1907 the LAC established The Lower Men’s Agricultural School in Nałęczów. All mentioned above ventures had important meaning for peasants and without a doubt helped to progress the peasant production, cultivation and animal husbandry.
Źródło:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku; 2010, 07; 39-59
2450-6796
Pojawia się w:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Poradniki i czasopisma jako źródło postulatywne do badań nad pożywieniem dzieci i młodzieży na ziemiach Królestwa Polskiego w latach 1795–1914 (perspektywa społeczno-kulturowa i zdrowotno-wychowawcza)
Hand-books and Magazines as Postulating to the Research of Children and Youth Nutrition in the Kingdom of Poland between 1795–1914 (social, cultural, health-educational perspective)
Autorzy:
Bołdyrew, Aneta
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/19959506.pdf
Data publikacji:
2013
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Łódzki. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego
Opis:
Hand-books and magazines are a valuable source facilitating the research of nutrition habits, including children’s nutrition which is widely discussed by the historians from health, biological, economic, social and cultural perspectives. Doctors and hygienists in the Kingdom of Poland popularized the results of the research of West European specialists. Newspapers and hand-books described new ways of pasteurization and sterilization of milk, new means of preparing animal milk and giving it to infants. Much attention was paid to nutrition, including the appropriate diet of young people. There were many articles describing, for instance, so called, chlorosis, among girls. The need to change traditional nutrition habits was emphasised. What the young people and children ate conditioned their health and strength, which on the other hand, influenced their psycho physical condition and intellectual ability. It was therefore an important element of health education. The sources discussed are a significant basis for the research of nutrition patterns and the creation of uniform tendency and standardss concerning nutrition of children in the XIXth and at the beginning of the XXth centuries.
Źródło:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku; 2013, 11; 5-18
2450-6796
Pojawia się w:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
After Warsaw Positivism: New Directions in the Studies on Polish Modern History. Review Article: Kamil Śmiechowski, Łódzka wizja postępu. Oblicze społeczno-ideowe „Gońca Łódzkiego”, „Kuriera Łódzkiego”, „Nowego Kuriera Łódzkiego” w latach 1898–1914
Autorzy:
Fukumoto, Kenshi
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/687590.pdf
Data publikacji:
2015
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Łódzki. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego
Źródło:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku; 2015, 14
2450-6796
Pojawia się w:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Polen in der europäischen Geschichte, hrsg. Michael G. Müller, Band 3, Die polnisch-litauischen Länder unter der Herrschaft der Teilungsmächte (1772/1795–1914), hrsg. [ed.] Michael G. Müller, Igor Kąkolewski, Karsten Holste, Robert Traba, Anton Hiersemann
Autorzy:
Kita, Agnieszka M.
Kita, Jarosław
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/19984516.pdf
Data publikacji:
2021
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Łódzki. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego
Źródło:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku; 2021, 24; 163-167
2450-6796
Pojawia się w:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Komitet Obywatelski Niesienia Pomocy Biednym w Łodzi – organizacja, struktura, zadania w początkowym okresie I wojny światowej (1914–1915)
Komitet Obywatelski Niesienia Pomocy Biednym (Citizens’ Committee for Providing Aid to the Poor) in Lodz – organization, structure, and tasks at the initial period of the World War I (1914–1915)
Autorzy:
Sosnowska, Joanna
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/687448.pdf
Data publikacji:
2018
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Łódzki. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego
Tematy:
Komitet Obywatelski Niesienia Pomocy Biednym w Łodzi
komisje obywatelskie
I wojna światowa
dostarczanie żywności ubogim
okręgi pomocowe
opieka społeczna
Komitet Obywatelski Niesienia Pomocy Biednym in Lodz
citizens’ committees
the World War I
providing food to the poor
aid districts
social care
Opis:
In the initial period of the World War I, there were two committees in Lodz with the status of social aid institutions: Główny Komitet Obywatelski miasta Łodzi – GKO (Main Citizens’ Committee of the City of Lodz) and Komitet Obywatelski Niesienia Pomocy Biednym – KONPB (Citizens’ Committee for Providing Aid to the Poor). Both of those organizations were formed virtually at the same time, i.e. on the first days of August 1914, and their activities complemented each other. The first of them took over the function of the city government with a number of competences in administration after Władysław Pieńkowski had left the city; the other one focused its efforts on typical social care for residents, who had suddenly found themselves in a situation of hazard to their safety, life, and health, at the risk of losing the source of income. The main goal of KONPB in the initial phase of the war was to provide material aid to the poorest residents of Lodz; the most important form of support used by the greatest number of people was provision of food. It was used by people of all religions and nationalities. They included, most of all, factory workers with families, people who lost their source of income, families of enlisted reservists, immigrants, homeless people, and those using services of many Lodz philanthropic and social organizations and institutions. This work presents several aspects of KONPB activities, such as the origins, structure, tasks, and financial resources as well as the cooperation and communication with GKO. Lodz citizens’ committees were liquidated by German occupation authorities on 30 June 1915, after almost a year of operations.
W początkowym okresie pierwszej wojny światowej istniały w Łodzi dwa komitety o statusie instytucji pomocy społecznej: Główny Komitet Obywatelski miasta Łodzi (GKO) i Komitet Obywatelski Niesienia Pomocy Biednego (KONPB). Obie te organizacje powstały praktycznie w tym samym czasie, tj. w pierwszych dniach sierpnia 1914 r., a ich działania wzajemnie się uzupełniały. Pierwszy z nich przejął funkcję miejskiego rządu z szeregiem kompetencji w administracji po opuszczeniu miasta przez prezydenta Władysława Pieńkowskiego; drugi skupił się na typowej opiece społecznej dla mieszkańców, którzy nagle znaleźli się w sytuacji zagrożenia dla ich bezpieczeństwa, życia i zdrowia, ryzykując utratę źródła dochodu. Głównym celem KONPB w początkowej fazie wojny było zapewnienie pomocy materialnej najbiedniejszym mieszkańcom Łodzi; najważniejszą formą wsparcia stosowaną przez największą liczbę osób było dostarczanie żywności. Korzystali z tego ludzie wszystkich religii i narodowości. Wśród nich byli przede wszystkim robotnicy fabryczni z rodzinami, ludzie, którzy stracili źródło dochodu, rodziny rezerwistów, imigrantów, bezdomnych i tych korzystających z usług wielu łódzkich organizacji filantropijnych i społecznych. W artykule przedstawiono kilka aspektów działań KONPB, takich jak geneza KONPB, struktura, zadania i zaplecze finansowe, a także współpracę i komunikację z GKO. Łódzkie komitety obywatelskie zostały zlikwidowane przez niemieckie władze okupacyjne 30 czerwca 1915 r., po prawie roku działalności.
Źródło:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku; 2018, 20; 68-88
2450-6796
Pojawia się w:
Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Wyświetlanie 1-15 z 16

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