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    Wyświetlanie 1-2 z 2
    Tytuł:
    Ochrona wzmocniona dóbr kulturalnych w razie konfliktu zbrojnego : znaczenie, ograniczenia i perspektywy zastosowania
    The enhanced protection of cultural property in the event of armed conflict : significance, limitations and future perspectives
    Autorzy:
    Karlikowska, Róża
    Powiązania:
    https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/485613.pdf
    Data publikacji:
    2016
    Wydawca:
    Uniwersytet Jagielloński. Instytut Europeistyki
    Tematy:
    ochrona wzmocniona dóbr kultury konflikt zbrojny
    Drugi Protokół do Konwencji haskiej z 1954 r. o ochronie dóbr kulturalnych w razie konfliktu zbrojnego z 1999 r.
    the enhanced protection of cultural property
    armed conflict
    1999 Second Protocol to the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property
    Opis:
    Enhanced protection remains the latest and most modern mechanism of cultural property protection in the case of international and non-international armed conflicts. It was established by the 1999 Second Protocol to the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict in order to protect the cultural heritage of the greatest importance for humanity much more effectively. To this end, the immunity of cultural property under enhanced protection was ensured without regard for the principle of military necessity, individual criminal responsibility for the crimes against cultural heritage was established and an appropriate institutional and financial framework was set up under the 1999 Second Protocol. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the enhanced protection system in terms of its significance for both cultural heritage law and IHL developments, as well as its effectiveness. It also examines the obstacles to the spread of the 1999 Second Protocol and the enhanced protection itself. It is argued that a much more integrated approach to the cultural property protection in time of armed conflict and in peacetime is required; in particular the synchronization of different measures existing under the UNESCO's conventions and the simplification of procedures would be beneficial. The widespread ratification of the 1999 Second Protocol would help to reduce collateral damages and intentional destruction of cultural heritage regardless of the character of conflict and the status of the parties to the conflict. It could also contribute to the IHL development in terms of gradually moving away from the principle of military necessity.
    Źródło:
    Problemy Współczesnego Prawa Międzynarodowego, Europejskiego i Porównawczego; 2016, 14; 28-52
    1730-4504
    Pojawia się w:
    Problemy Współczesnego Prawa Międzynarodowego, Europejskiego i Porównawczego
    Dostawca treści:
    Biblioteka Nauki
    Artykuł
    Tytuł:
    Należyta staranność w kontekście użycia siły śmiercionośnej w porządku prawnym Europejskiej Konwencji Praw Człowieka
    The due diligence related to the use of lethal force in the law of the European Convention of Human Rights
    Autorzy:
    Morawska, Elżbieta H.
    Powiązania:
    https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/485524.pdf
    Data publikacji:
    2018
    Wydawca:
    Uniwersytet Jagielloński. Instytut Europeistyki
    Tematy:
    Europejska Konwencja Praw Człowieka
    Europejski Trybunał Praw Człowieka mechanizm egzekucji w zakresie zapobiegania, zwalczania i ścigania sprawców naruszeń
    umyślne i bezprawne pozbawienia życia
    European Convention on Human Rights
    European Court of Human Rights law-enforcement machinery for the prevention, suppression and sanctioning of breaches of provisions
    intentional and unlawful taking of life
    Opis:
    In the light of Article 2(2) of the Convention, the threat to the right to life posed by the use of lethal force by State agents (lethal force) should be taken seriously in particular. It provides that deprivation of life shall not be considered contrary to this article if it results from the use of force which is no more than absolutely necessary to achieve the three objectives set out therein. However, in the Court's view, those provisions do not, in any event, entitle the State to use force with the intention of killing. This means that Article 2 of the Convention requires a State to refrain from intentional and unlawful taking of life. The Court established the conditions for the use of lethal force in the case of McCann and Others v. the United Kingdom of 1995. In view of the criterion of absolute necessity, the circumstances in which the use of lethal force may occur must be interpreted restrictively and evaluated with the utmost rigour, taking account of all the circumstances surrounding the use of that force. The Court therefore combined a new premise with the criterion of absolute necessity of the use of lethal force. A review of the case-law shows that it is of major importance and that it de facto leads to a redefinition of the criterion of absolute necessity. The Court has neither defined its substance precisely nor indicated in an exhaustive manner the situations which it regards as "all the circumstances surrounding". However, it pointed out the initial assumption that in a democratic society, law-enforcement officials should be "somewhat cautious in the use of firearms". Subsequently, it translated into concrete duties, including the obligation to prepare a plan of action using lethal force, next the obligation to exercise appropriate supervision over its course, the obligation to take the care of the right to life sufficiently into account in the instructions given to officers regarding the use of lethal force, in particular the exclusion of shoot to kill instruction and the obligation to train or instruct officers accordingly in order to be able to assess whether there is an absolute need for the use of firearms in a particular situation. The Court is progressively developing the scope and content of these obligations. This is shown, for example, by the 2010 Wasilewska and Kalucka v. Poland case, which requires police officers who take action using lethal force to carry a clear identification mark, so that there is no doubt that they are police officers. In addition, the authorities were obliged to provide an ambulance at the site of the action. In the Andronicou and Constantinou v. Cyprus case of 1997, the Court drew attention for the first time to the obligation planning and control of the rescue operation. The fulfilment of these duties requires a number of concrete actions which serve a preventive function. It is not just crime prevention sensu stricto. In fact, it involves a whole range of different organisational, technical and tactical measures, including tactics and techniques for prevention and intervention by a broad range of police and preventive services, secret services and the military. The multidimensional protective function of these measures is important. The Court optimises the requirements for the performance of the duties mentioned above, taking into account their specific circumstances and their operational aspect and stresses that they must not result in disproportionate and unrealistic burdens on the authorities. An infringement of Article 2 of the Convention therefore arises where a State Party has not taken all the possible measures which the specific circumstances of the case required to be taken and which could have been taken. As a result of the above optimisation, the level of performance of the indicated duties may vary, although it must be the highest possible. The Court has required States to take requisite care to "minimise to the greatest extent possible recourse to lethal force or incidental loss of life". Thus, an important criterion for these obligations is the criterion of due diligence, which has traditionally been linked to progressive obligations linked to economic, social and cultural rights. In conclusion, without altering the nature and subject-matter of the prohibition on intentional or unlawful deprivation of life, the Court has "surrounded" it with the duties of diligent action. It thus the general obligation of the States Parties to the Convention to protect the right to life (Article of the Convention) has been substantially strengthened.
    Źródło:
    Problemy Współczesnego Prawa Międzynarodowego, Europejskiego i Porównawczego; 2018, 16; 97-114
    1730-4504
    Pojawia się w:
    Problemy Współczesnego Prawa Międzynarodowego, Europejskiego i Porównawczego
    Dostawca treści:
    Biblioteka Nauki
    Artykuł
      Wyświetlanie 1-2 z 2

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