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Tytuł:
Beyond Media Education: Assessing News Media Literacy in Media Students of Public and Private Universities in Pakistan
Autorzy:
Ikram, Mariam
Hameedur Rahman, Bushra
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/52495227.pdf
Data publikacji:
2023
Wydawca:
Univerzita sv. Cyrila a Metoda. Fakulta masmediálnej komunikácie
Tematy:
Analytical Courses
Critical Thinking Skills
Curriculum
Media Education
Media Literacy
News Media
News Media Literacy
News Literacy Skills
Opis:
Infiltration of mass media has increased the exigency of tools necessary for countering the hazardous effects of mass media. Media literacy is considered a tool essential in the 21st century for a democratic society that aims to empower the audience and provides autonomy over mass media messages. Media education plays a significant role in educating media students about theoretical and practical knowledge about media industries. The researcher has employed the “Cognitive Model of Media Literacy” proposed by Potter (2004) and seven skills of media literacy suggested by Potter (2019), particularly as related to news content. News media is supposed to be highly objective, but highlighting some news while neglecting others raises questions about the objectivity of news media. The study intends to explore the standard of media education in Pakistan in imparting news media literacy among media students enrolled in BS and Master’s degree programs. To analyze the level of theoretical and practical knowledge of media students regarding news media and their level of news literacy skills, the researcher has collected data using a cross-sectional survey of 300 students (N=300) enrolled in two public and two private universities in Pakistan, including 200 media students and 100 non-media students. Moreover, through content analysis of the curriculum of media studies mentioned in the prospectus of BS and Master’s degree programs, the standard of media education in Pakistan is also assessed. The study’s findings suggest that media students are more news media literate than non-media students, highlighting the significance of media education. Similarly, consciously and excessively consuming news media also positively affects the level of news media literacy in media students. Moreover, this study suggests that while performing information processing tasks, media students are equipped with skills to perform the task of news filtering comparatively better than meaning construction tasks. However, content analysis of the curriculum reveals that the majority of the courses related to news content focus on theoretical and practical knowledge while neglecting the significance of incorporating analytical courses crucial to harness critical thinking skills. The findings elucidate that universities offering analytical courses in their BS and Master levels scored higher in their news media literacy than those not offering analytical courses. Therefore, the study suggests the incorporation of analytical courses at BS and Master level media education curricula to develop essential skills for performing meaning construction tasks effectively.
Źródło:
Media Literacy and Academic Research; 2023, 6, 1; 70-90
2585-8726
2585-9188
Pojawia się w:
Media Literacy and Academic Research
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
The importance of media literacy education: How Lithuanian students evaluate online news content credibility
Autorzy:
Šuminas, Andrius
Jastramskis, Deimantas
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/1112156.pdf
Data publikacji:
2020-05-08
Wydawca:
Polskie Towarzystwo Komunikacji Społecznej
Tematy:
media literacy
newst trustworthiness
news literacy
eye trackng
Lithuania
Opis:
Nowadays, when the flow of fake news in traditional media and on social media platforms has increased dramatically, media and information literacy (MIL) skills are more important than ever. MIL promotes the critical thinking skills that enable people to make independent choices, in particular how to evaluate and choose different information sources and channels, as well as how to interpret the news and information received through those channels. This article explores how young people in Lithuania evaluate the trustworthiness of news. Two groups of students were selected for the experiment: young people who had participated in a basic course in MIL, and young people whose learning was minimally related to MIL. The study was conducted using a survey and eye-tracking device that enabled researchers to record and analyse readers’ real behaviour and to identify the distribution of attention, i.e. the concentration of sight and time spent on particular news elements. The research results show a clear difference between these two groups and thus confirm the importance of media literacy education.
Źródło:
Central European Journal of Communication; 2020, 13, 2(26); 230-248
1899-5101
Pojawia się w:
Central European Journal of Communication
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Effectiveness Of Educational Approaches To Elementary School Pupils (11 Or 12 Years Old) To Combat Fake News
Autorzy:
Helvoort, (Jos) van
Hermans, Marianne
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/2150848.pdf
Data publikacji:
2020
Wydawca:
Univerzita sv. Cyrila a Metoda. Fakulta masmediálnej komunikácie
Tematy:
Media education
News literacy
Primary education
Literature review
Opis:
The purpose of this literature study is to obtain information about educational approaches to teaching 11 to 12 years old children focusing on how to distinguish between real news and fake news. With this purpose we studied 16 academic papers about learning activities to make primary school children media-literate and able to recognise fake news. What we found is that having children create their own news messages seems to be the most effective approach. News messages that they create can be text messages as well as videos, audios, pictures and animations. Based on this conclusion, students from The Hague University of Applied Sciences Teacher Training Institute (PABO) have been asked to develop a set of learning materials that can be used for instruction in primary schools. The effectiveness of those materials is currently being tested at an elementary school in Rijswijk. The results of the literature and the field study will be shared in the Dutch centre of expertise for media literacy education, Mediawijzer.ne.
Źródło:
Media Literacy and Academic Research; 2020, 3, 2; 38-47
2585-8726
Pojawia się w:
Media Literacy and Academic Research
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
A review of the fake news ecosystem in India and the need for the News Literacy project
Przegląd ekosystemu „fake news” w Indiach a potrzeba zastosowania projektu News Literacy
Autorzy:
Kaur, Kanchan
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/616526.pdf
Data publikacji:
2019
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu
Tematy:
News Literacy
Fake news
WhatsApp
Social Media
Factchecking
fake news
media społecznościowe
Opis:
Tylko w ostatnim roku ponad 30 osób zginęło w Indiach z powodu pogłosek o porwaniach dzieci rozpowszechnianych w mediach społecznościowych, a w szczególności za pośrednictwem WhatsApp. Dostępność Internetu w Indiach istotnie wzrosła w ostatnich latach dzięki wejściu na rynek Reliance Jo, które uczyniło pakiety danych tańszymi, a przez to bardziej dostępnymi. WhatsApp był najczęściej pobieraną aplikacją. Podczas gdy kraj przygotowywał się do ważnych wyborów, rozpowszechnianie dezinformacji uległo przyspieszeniu. Rządząca partia prawicowa stwierdziła, że w jej grupach WhatsUp uczestniczą ponad 3 miliony osób. Niedawny raport BBC pokazał, iż największa ilość dezinformacji w kraju jest rozpowszechniana przez środowiska prawicowe. Bez względu na to, czy nazwie się to propagandą, dezinformacją czy oczywistymi „fake newsami”, fałszywa lub nieprawdziwa informacja stała się częścią procesu politycznego w Indiach. Co więcej, w ciągu ostatnich kilku lat, indyjskie media zdają się nie sprzeciwiać rządowi i zasadniczo wspierają linię władz. Powodów takiego stanu rzeczy jest kilka i należą do nich korporacyjna własność mediów, regresywne regulacje prawne, jak również całkowite pomijanie mediów przez rządzących. Premier rozmawiał jedynie z kilkoma wybranymi domami medialnymi i w ciągu 5-letniej kadencji nigdy nie otrzymał trudnych pytań. Co więcej, rząd całkowicie pominął media, zwracając się do społeczeństwa bezpośrednio za pomocą mediów społecznościowych. Wszystkie te czynniki tworzą bardzo nabrzmiałą i chaotyczną sytuację informacyjną. Z uwagi na ingerencję rządu w edukację dla większości edukatorów wprowadzanie kursów krytycznego myślenia stało się znacznie trudniejsze. Dzieje się tak mimo podejmowania przez Google News Initative, Facebook czy BBC Schools wysiłków na rzecz wprowadzenia narzędzi do weryfikowania fałszywych informacji.
In India, in the last year alone, over 30 people have died due to child kidnapping rumors spread on social media, specifically WhatsApp. India’s access to the internet shot up in the recent years with the entry of Reliance Jio which made data plans affordable and therefore accessible. WhatsApp has been the most frequently downloaded application. As the country gears up for an important election, the spread of disinformation has accelerated. The right-wing ruling party has claimed that it has over 3 million people in its WhatsApp groups. A recent study by BBC has shown that in the country, most of the disinformation has been spread by the right wing. Call it propaganda, disinformation or plain fake news, false or wrong information has become a part of the political process in India. Moreover, the Indian media no longer seem to be standing up to the government; in the last few years, it has generally toed the government line. The reasons are many, including corporate ownership, regressive laws, and a complete bypass of the media by the powers. The Prime Minister has spoken only to a few selected media houses and has never been asked any tough questions in his five-year tenure. Furthermore, the media has been completely sidelined by this government by it going to the public, directly through social media. All of this has produced a very turgid and messy information situation. With the government also interfering in education, it has become all the more difficult for most educators to introduce critical thinking courses in the country, even though various efforts have been made by Google News Initiative, Facebook and BBC Schools to introduce tools to debunk false information.
Źródło:
Przegląd Politologiczny; 2019, 4; 23-29
1426-8876
Pojawia się w:
Przegląd Politologiczny
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Not Just for Laughs – Using Comics to Burst the Fake-News Bubble
Autorzy:
Steuter, Erin
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/52494758.pdf
Data publikacji:
2023
Wydawca:
Univerzita sv. Cyrila a Metoda. Fakulta masmediálnej komunikácie
Tematy:
Comics
Critical Media Literacy
Educational Comics
Fake News
Graphic Novel
Multimodal Literacy
Opis:
This research study presents an analysis of a pedagogical strategy for teaching university students how to apply critical media literacy skills to develop their ability to detect fake news. The goal of the study was to explore the potential advantages of using comics as medium to engage students, clarify complex content, and accelerate cognition. The empirical part of the paper provides a comprehensive account of this pedagogical strategy, outlining the design and implementation of the workshop, incorporating insights from critical media literacy literature, current examples of fake news, and graphic narrative approaches. In particular, the project engaged the students through the presentation of information about fake news with comicstyle graphic narratives and assessed their learning through their interaction and completion of creative dialogue within these narratives. The students showed a high level of engagement and helped peers navigate examples of fake news. They also demonstrated insights into the structural and economic factors that encourage fake news, including within the commercial news media. This study brings new insights and information on several issues related to media literacy practice in the academic context and emphasizes the relationship between communication and pedagogical studies. Adding comics to the critical media literacy toolkit shows promise in expanding techniques in the battle against fake news.
Źródło:
Media Literacy and Academic Research; 2023, 6, 1; 5-22
2585-8726
2585-9188
Pojawia się w:
Media Literacy and Academic Research
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Fake News and Disinformation: Phenomenons of Post-Factual Society
Autorzy:
Hossová, Monika
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/526516.pdf
Data publikacji:
2018
Wydawca:
Univerzita sv. Cyrila a Metoda. Fakulta masmediálnej komunikácie
Tematy:
Postfactual
Post-truth
Fake news
Hoax
Media literacy
Critical thinking
Media Literacy Index 2018
Opis:
The theoretical study deals with fake news, disinformation and hoaxes. These phenomena are a major problem for contemporary society. We call it post-factual society. This expression is explained as falling confidence in objective facts and, on the contrary, increasing confidence in information with an emotional connotation, based on personal belief and conviction. The author in the study discusses the concepts of fake news, misinformation, hoaxes, their types, properties, and analyses several known fake news that appear primarily on the Internet. The author further analyses the current situation and interprets the results of the Media Literacy Index 2018, which deals with the resistance of the countries to the aforementioned negative phenomena. Last, but not least, the author focuses on the possibilities of prevention, education in this field and increasing media literacy. The study presents a theoretical view of the problem that has resonated in recent years in society and requires preventive measures and activities in the field of education and media literacy of the population of countries (not only) of the European Union.
Źródło:
Media Literacy and Academic Research; 2018, 1, 2; 27-35
2585-8726
2585-9188
Pojawia się w:
Media Literacy and Academic Research
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
The Most Important Thing Is to Find a Way How to Teach Media Education in an Appropriate Way. Interview with Jan Jirák
Autorzy:
Oprala, Branislav
Bielik, Pavel
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/526543.pdf
Data publikacji:
2018
Wydawca:
Univerzita sv. Cyrila a Metoda. Fakulta masmediálnej komunikácie
Tematy:
Media education
Media literacy
Fake news
Journalism
Media studies
Opis:
The interview is focused on the key issues concerning the development of media literacy in the Czech Republic as well as the entire world. It focuses on the strengths and weaknesses of the implementation of media education within the conditions of Czech education, while considering the limits as well as challenges, which teachers and academics trying to get students acquainted with the media world have to face. Important parts of media literacy policies are the conceptual, methodological and theoretical materials that can have a significant impact on the successful establishment of media education in both school and out-of-school education. The interview highlights that even such conceptual materials and tools are subject to rapid obsolescence and it is necessary to continuously innovate and complement them, so that they can reflect the very dynamic development of the media as well as constant changes in the preferences or behaviour of the audience members. These arguments should also be taken into account when preparing future journalists and other media professionals, as well as in dealing with the issue of hybrid threats and fake news.
Źródło:
Media Literacy and Academic Research; 2018, 1, 1; 87-97
2585-8726
Pojawia się w:
Media Literacy and Academic Research
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Report of HLEG on Fake News and Online Disinformation
Autorzy:
Bôtošová, Ľubica
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/526563.pdf
Data publikacji:
2018
Wydawca:
Univerzita sv. Cyrila a Metoda. Fakulta masmediálnej komunikácie
Tematy:
Fake news
Disinformation
HLEG
European commission
Report
Media literacy
Opis:
This report refers about the policy initiatives to counter fake news and disinformation spread online and the techniques of the European Commission to prevent this issue. The HLEG, a high-level group of experts created by the European Commission in 2018, prepared a report with best practicies and suitable responses to disinformation. The main responses were divided into five pillars as transparency, media and information literacy, empowering users and journalists, safeguard of the diversity of the European news media ecosystem and continued research.
Źródło:
Media Literacy and Academic Research; 2018, 1, 2; 74-77
2585-8726
2585-9188
Pojawia się w:
Media Literacy and Academic Research
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
The Media Manipulation Initiative: It is Helpful to Clearly Differentiate Between Fake News Intended to Be Satire from Hyper-Partisan News Sites
Autorzy:
Kapec, Miroslav
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/526559.pdf
Data publikacji:
2018
Wydawca:
Univerzita sv. Cyrila a Metoda. Fakulta masmediálnej komunikácie
Tematy:
Media Literacy
Media Messages
Fake News
Media Manipulation
Media Perspective
Opis:
Most of us meet mass media almost every day. We search for information, accept and share them daily. In post-factual time, it is more difficult to focus on and choose from lot of available information, especially when there are various forms of fake news, which some of them are produced strategically and systemically. The Media Manipulation Initiative comes with research focused on the definition of fake news, categorization and strategies of intervention.
Źródło:
Media Literacy and Academic Research; 2018, 1, 2; 80-82
2585-8726
2585-9188
Pojawia się w:
Media Literacy and Academic Research
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
The Promises, Challenges, and Futures of Media Literacy
Autorzy:
Kaňuková, Nikola
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/526561.pdf
Data publikacji:
2018
Wydawca:
Univerzita sv. Cyrila a Metoda. Fakulta masmediálnej komunikácie
Tematy:
Media Literacy
Media Messages
Fake News
Media Manipulation
Media Perspective
Opis:
Nowadays initiatives in the fields of media literacy such as youth participation, teacher training and curricular resources, parental support, policy initiatives, and evidence base construction - are very successful in growing the level of the critical thinking of the participants. However, there are still a few areas which need to be guided. Authors Monica Bulger and Patrick Davison make five recommendations for the development of the future of media literacy programming for educators, legislators, technologists, and philanthropists. On the other hand the report also warns against the contemporary treatment of media literacy as a panacea - in the way of how to deal with fake news.
Źródło:
Media Literacy and Academic Research; 2018, 1, 2; 82-83
2585-8726
2585-9188
Pojawia się w:
Media Literacy and Academic Research
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Media and Information Literacy of Students – Skills and Challenges in the Context of Political Preferences
Autorzy:
Barczyszyn-Madziarz, Paulina
Zieliński, Mateusz
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/2032690.pdf
Data publikacji:
2021-07-29
Wydawca:
Uniwersytet Śląski. Wydział Nauk Społecznych
Tematy:
fake news
democracy
media
Media and Information Literacy
political preferences
survey
Opis:
The main purpose of this article is to present the link between the level of media and information literacy (MIL) and political preferences of Polish students based on empirical research. MIL is a key issue for today’s societies as it equips citizens with the skills needed to use various media and information channels and exercise their basic human rights. Phenomena such as post-truth, the way people are more inclined to accept arguments based on emotions and beliefs than facts, disinformation and fake news are an important context and subject of ongoing scientific discussions. Keeping in mind the limitations of self-report methods, the authors combine the elements of students’ self-assessment with the questions that test their theoretical knowledge and competences related to recognizing fake news. The research sample consists of 870 students of social sciences and journalism. The results of the research provide detailed knowledge about the level of MIL as well as political preferences of students. By that, authors hope to contribute to the global scientific discussion, offering their research conducted in the context of the declining quality of democracy in Poland.
Źródło:
Political Preferences; 2021, 28; 69-85
2449-9064
Pojawia się w:
Political Preferences
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Non-Formal Education Focused on the Development of Critical Thinking and Media Literacy: The Role and Activities of Key Stakeholders in Slovakia
Autorzy:
Vrabec, Norbert
Kačinová, Viera
Kitsa, Mariana
Majda, Martin
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/18691619.pdf
Data publikacji:
2023-06-20
Wydawca:
Fundacja Pro Scientia Publica
Tematy:
critical thinking
media literacy
media education
stakeholders
non-formal education
disinformation
fake news
Opis:
Aim. This research study aims to examine the role and activities of key stakeholders in Slovakia who participate in non-formal education activities focused on the issue of critical thinking in relation to media communication. The aim was to gain an overview of the ways and means by which these actors address their target groups and what conceptual approaches they use to increase the level of media literacy at the national level. Methods. Framework analysis of secondary data on Slovak subjects whose non-formal educational activities and tools focus on the issue of critical thinking, disinformation and fake news by increasing the level of media and information literacy of various target groups. Results. The analysis of secondary data showed that representatives of various stakeholders in Slovakia offer different categories of projects and activities to increase the level of media and information literacy of various target groups. The obtained results indicate that the most active providers of non-formal education activities are in the sector of non-governmental organisations and think tanks. Our analysis also aimed to examine what types of educational activities organisations provide. The most significant representation is static online content (various types of educational content available through the website). Conclusions. The presented research results suggest that in terms of the position of key actors, the ways of their involvement in non-formal education processes are sufficiently diversified. They use a wide range of implementation concepts and models to develop critical thinking through non-formal learning methods for different target groups.
Źródło:
Journal of Education Culture and Society; 2023, 14, 1; 493-502
2081-1640
Pojawia się w:
Journal of Education Culture and Society
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Pseudo-Authorities As A Manipulation Tool In The News Coverage Of “Sputnik V”
Autorzy:
Teneva, Ekaterina
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/52482731.pdf
Data publikacji:
2021
Wydawca:
Univerzita sv. Cyrila a Metoda. Fakulta masmediálnej komunikácie
Tematy:
Media Literacy
Pseudo-authority
Coronavirus
Covid-19
Sputnik V
Manipulation
Rhetorical strategy
Internet news discourse
Opis:
The present article is devoted to the issues of public opinion manipulation in the post-Covid era. Within the framework of the study, the author introduces the concept of “pseudo-authority” which is defined as a rhetorical strategy used by journalists with the aim of the manipulation of the Internet news reports that contain either appeals to non-experts' opinions or no indication of the authoritative source of knowledge so that the information is perceived by the audience as the truth and does not require evidence. The study is also focused on the distinction between appeals to authority and pseudo-authority, which is vital for developing skills of media literacy. Through the discourse analysis of the news stories about the Russian vaccine “Sputnik V” extracted from highly circulated British and American online newspapers, it is revealed that there are three main types of appeals to pseudo-authorities in Internet news discourse: appeals to “nominal” and “implicit” pseudo-authorities as well as appeals to “pseudo-visibility”. The study found that these appeals are used with the aim of political decision-making, enhancing or discrediting the image of the country as well as polarizing social groups in digital information warfare. The results of the research can be applied in the fields of linguistics, political and media studies.
Źródło:
Media Literacy and Academic Research; 2021, 4, 2; 148-165
2585-8726
2585-9188
Pojawia się w:
Media Literacy and Academic Research
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
Fact-checking initiatives as promoters of media and information literacy: The case of Poland
Autorzy:
Kuś, Michał
Barczyszyn-Madziarz, Paulina
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/1112122.pdf
Data publikacji:
2020-05-08
Wydawca:
Polskie Towarzystwo Komunikacji Społecznej
Tematy:
disinformation
fake news
fact-checking
fact-checking initiatives
media and information literacy (MIL)
Polska
Opis:
The main purpose of the article is to present the role and importance of Polish factchecking initiatives in context of their educational dimension. The central question that the authors will try to answer is: To what extent and in which way do the Polish fact-checking initiatives provide education as part of their activities? To answer this question, the authors implemented a two-step research design – starting from desk research concerning the development of Polish fact-checking scene and its social, political, economic and cultural background. The second step included in-depth, semi-structured interviews with five representatives of different types of Polish fact-checking initiatives. Considering a limited number of fact-checking organizations in Poland, the authors can assume a certain level of generalizability of the results of such qualitative research. The study shows that studied initiatives are occasionally active in the field of media and information literacy, and only some of them (i.e. mostly those related to civil society groups) treat their educational activities as a priority.
Źródło:
Central European Journal of Communication; 2020, 13, 2(26); 249-265
1899-5101
Pojawia się w:
Central European Journal of Communication
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł
Tytuł:
The Topic Of Media-Disseminated Mis-Information And Dis-Information As An Integral Part Of General Education In Slovakia
Autorzy:
Kačínová, Viera
Powiązania:
https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/526508.pdf
Data publikacji:
2020
Wydawca:
Univerzita sv. Cyrila a Metoda. Fakulta masmediálnej komunikácie
Tematy:
Mis-Information
Dis-Information
Fake news
Information Disorder
Media and Information literacy
Complete secondary general education
Learning standards
National Educational Programme
Slovak school
Opis:
The occurrence and spreading of online mis-information and dis-information is a phenomenon that adversely affects various areas of social and political life on a global scale. At the transnational (especially European) level, regulatory mechanisms are currently being sought, which would be able to limit their occurrence or easy distribution through online space - or possibly to enable an individual to build up a defence against their influence. Defensive instruments are designed specifically at the educational level. In Slovakia, the issue is currently being given more attention in the context of school education in connection with initiatives of the teachers and institutions that create educational projects and campaigns as well as methodological tools for the implementation of the topic in education (cf. Kačinová, 2018). However, these should be supported by a compulsory curriculum, specific educational topics and educational objectives. The present study examines the situation in Slovakia with focus on the lower secondary and upper (complete) secondary general education.
Źródło:
Media Literacy and Academic Research; 2020, 1; 18-31
2585-8726
Pojawia się w:
Media Literacy and Academic Research
Dostawca treści:
Biblioteka Nauki
Artykuł

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