The next stage of work consisted in sketching by
means of a brush on the carefully smoothed coating
which the stage normally was started with-the nimbi
contoured with aid of drawing compass and followed
by line contouring of the whole figure.
Both the Greek painter’s handbooks and Russian
„Podlinniks” recommended to produce the preliminary
drawing using ochre, however, it has been
revealed as a result of careful examinations that the
said preliminary drawings were also executed with
red paints (e.g. iron oxide red, genuine vermilion)
and in some cases with black paint.
With the preliminary drawings completed as the
following step the contours were incised in freshly
laid coats this being a quite different method when
compared with usual practice applied in the classical
Italian frescoes where the preliminary drawing was
impressed through the carboard „stencil”. The incising
of contours in Byzantine-Ruthenian paintings
constituted an additional operation, thus frequently
enough no slightest traces of it can be found in
completed works. According to information found
in Greek ’’Hermeneyas” this operation was usually
carried out with help of ”a bone having blunted
point”, ”an iron spatula”, or ”a mosaic stone”. In
’’Podlinniks” are mentioned the knives as the tools
used to the purpose. In paintings under discussion
the synopy can be found only sporadically.
On completion of preparatory drawing the paint
layer was laid immediately on the fresh topping
coat. This operation is especially stressed by all the
sources in question, i. e. “Hermeneyas”, “Tiipik” by
Nektariy and “Podlinniks”. When comparing prescriptions
from written sources it can be found that
some of them suggested to paint immediately while
the others accepted the possibility to continue the
work still on other day. There is no doubt, however,
that the technique applied what regard's its essential
features represented that typical for the fresco painting
and the differences arose from varying conditions
under which the work was executed.
The Greek painter’s handbooks and “Tipik” by
Nektariy make a distinction between the pigments
used for painting of icons and those applied in mural
paintings. The above and some other sources warn
against the hasty use of vermilion which should be used exclusively for painting of interiors. The same
sources give several ways for preparing the lime
white whose characteristic feature should be its
neutral taste. According to the above sources this
paint was free from caustic lime and thus prevented
the forming of crystalline calcium carbonate deposits
on painted surfaces.
In “Hermeneyas” may also be found prescriptions
giving suggestions as to the way of preparing the
colour mixtures, as for instance, “proplasme” (dark
green colour) or flesh shade and “glyeasme” (being
a combination of flesh shade .and “proplasme”)- Only
six names of basic pigments are mentioned in “Tipik”.
Nevertheless, in Ruthenian and Russian paintings
about 40 types of pigments can be distinguished and
among them also those representing the mixtures
of two or more different pigments like “reft” (dark
grey or grey-black colour) and “sankir” (dark
greenish yellow hue).
Results of examinations carried out on several
paintings have proved that among most frequently
used natural pigments were ochres in a variety of
shades, the iron oxide red, raw umbra, earth, green,
natural vermilion, azurite, ultramarine, malachite
and lime white.
Artificially produced were black from organic carbon
(soot or burnt wood), smalt, minium and some
shades based on copper compounds. Quite sporadically
within the tempera palette were used colours coming
from organic pigments and those based on lead
compounds. As the other informations deserving
attention in written sources should be quoted manners
of preparing the brushes. According to “Hermeneyas”
as materials for their manufacture were
used the hairs from the ass mane, those from the
beard of mule, but also goat and ox hairs. Brushes
manufactured from the above materials were used
to lay the flesh shades, to provide lighter tones and
for modelling.
To produce the ground paint layers (e.g. dark
backgrounds) the bristle brushes were used. The
Byzantine-Ruthenian mural paintings were built up
by a method developed at production of icons. As
mentioned in “Hermeneyas” the faces, after making
preliminary drawing, were normally underpainted
with proplasme (a colour .called “sankir” in Russia)
Which in turn was lightened up by glyeasme. As the
next step, a second lightening with the flesh shade
was introduced. Using the same colour with the
addition of white were modelled the light-coloured
areas and those imitating relief. Bright spots were
produced by means of pure white or white combined
with ochre. In the meantime an exact drawing was
produced. Rules concerning the grading of lightenings
are also given in “Tipik” and “Podlinniks”. It
should be pointed out, however, that the method of
work carried on the step-by-step basis was subjected
to various changes as a result of the time period,
country, particular workshop traditions and so forth.
The background of composition was covered with
a mixture of black and white and in some cases
with .an addition of a colour from the ochre group.
This basic colour was called “reft” in Russia. On
dark background was laid azure which was intended
to imitate the sky blue. In some cases, however,
instead of a dark ground an ochre tone was laid,
which, .as the next step, was covered with gilt. For
laying the azures forming dark backgrounds organic
binders were used. The “Hermeneyas”, for example,
recommended to apply the bran decoction, while
’’Tipik” that prepared of peeled barley mixed in
1 :1 proportion with the skin glue, at the same time
giving a prescription for casein glue.
In ’’Podlinniks”, apart from the wheat decoction are
mentioned that made of linseed and egg tempera.
It is extremely difficult to identify nowadays the
organic binders since during many centuries they
were exposed to destructive action of various microorganisms.
At the same time, however, a notice
should be made here that mural paintings, .and
especially those painted with azure, in numerous
cases were restored with the use of paints prepared
with addition of different binders.
In his treatise “Diversarum artium schaedula” the
Monk Theophilus gives a wide range of suggestions
similar to those contained in “Hermeneyas” and
“Podlinniks” with respect to preparing and introducing
the azure on dark backgrounds. The gilting of
nimbi, stars and other decorative elements constituted
the last step within the sequence of works. This
final operation was carried out with the use of gold
foil laid on the suitably prepared linseed oil film.
As may be read in sources a great importance was
attached to laying of gilt on sufficiently dried spots
and areas. By so doing a possibility of saponification
of linseed oil was considerably reduced. While summing
up the above considerations a conclusion can be
drawn that in artistic circles within the sphere of
influences of Byzantine-Ruthenian cultural tradition
a range of strictly defined technical methods was in
common use. These methods and rules have taken
their definite shape already during the first centuries
of the courrent millenium and later on were only
enriohened by some local experiences. It can therefore
be stated that the technique .applied in producing
of mural paintings may be considered as one
substantially indentical with that of frescoes whereas
the tempera painting as one of secondary importance.
The most essential feature was the preparation
of lime putties and mortars and also the making of
topping coats. The production of a painting itself
followed consequently according to the step-by-step
process.